A historical overview of the classification, evolution, and dispersion of Leishmania parasites and sandflies

Background The aim of this study is to describe the major evolutionary historical events among Leishmania, sandflies, and the associated animal reservoirs in detail, in accordance with the geographical evolution of the Earth, which has not been previously discussed on a large scale. Methodology and Principal Findings Leishmania and sandfly classification has always been a controversial matter, and the increasing number of species currently described further complicates this issue. Despite several hypotheses on the origin, evolution, and distribution of Leishmania and sandflies in the Old and New World, no consistent agreement exists regarding dissemination of the actors that play roles in leishmaniasis. For this purpose, we present here three centuries of research on sandflies and Leishmania descriptions, as well as a complete description of Leishmania and sandfly fossils and the emergence date of each Leishmania and sandfly group during different geographical periods, from 550 million years ago until now. We discuss critically the different approaches that were used for Leishmana and sandfly classification and their synonymies, proposing an updated classification for each species of Leishmania and sandfly. We update information on the current distribution and dispersion of different species of Leishmania (53), sandflies (more than 800 at genus or subgenus level), and animal reservoirs in each of the following geographical ecozones: Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropic, Afrotropical, Oriental, Malagasy, and Australian. We propose an updated list of the potential and proven sandfly vectors for each Leishmania species in the Old and New World. Finally, we address a classical question about digenetic Leishmania evolution: which was the first host, a vertebrate or an invertebrate? Conclusions and Significance We propose an updated view of events that have played important roles in the geographical dispersion of sandflies, in relation to both the Leishmania species they transmit and the animal reservoirs of the parasites

Effective temperature as an ecological factor in Southern Africa

Zoologica Africana 4(2): 145-19

The bryofloristic elements of southern Africa

A TWINSPAN classification divides the moss flora of southern Africa (South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland, and Lesotho) into two main bryofloristic elements: (1) the Xerophytic (south-western) element mainly distributed in the winter rainfall and semi-arid to arid, temperate areas of southern Africa, and (2) the Mesophytic (subtropical) element distributed in more stable, subtropical habitats of the northern, eastern and southern parts of southern Africa. The Xerophytic element is dominated by acrocarpous mosses, including the ephemerals, while the Mesophytic element contains most of the pleurocarpous mosses. The main Xerophytic element is subdivided into the Eastern Highlands and Cape Elements while the Mesophytic element consists of the Afromontane Grassland and Afromontane Forest Elements. The Afromontane Forest Element is the largest bryofloristic element and contains the most southern African moss endemics. The four bryofloristic elements are subdivided into eight subelements: the Eastern Highlands Element into the Mont Aux Sources and Widespread Subelements, the Cape Element into the West Coast and Boland Subelements, the Afromontane Grassland Element into the Disjunct Cape Peninsula and Drakensberg Subelements, and the Afromontane Forest Element into the Widespread Afromontane and Tropical Afromontane Subelements. Many of the bryofloristic elements and distribution centres correspond with phytogeographical elements and centres described for the seed plants of southern Africa. The Afromontane area in the south-western Cape is identified as a bryogeographical hotspot