Changing perspectives on the internationalization of R&D and innovation by multinational enterprises: a review of the literature

Internationalization of R&D and innovation by Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) has undergone a gradual and comprehensive change in perspective over the past 50 years. From sporadic works in the late 1950s and in the 1960s, it became a systematically analysed topic in the 1970s, starting with pioneering reports and “foundation texts”. Our review unfolds the theoretical and empirical evolution of the literature from dyadic interpretations of centralization versus decentralization of R&D by MNEs to more comprehensive frameworks, wherein established MNEs from Advanced Economies still play a pivotal role, but new players and places also emerge in the global generation and diffusion of knowledge. Hence views of R&D internationalization increasingly rely on concepts, ideas and methods from IB and other related disciplines such as industrial organization, international economics and economic geography. Two main findings are highlighted. First, scholarly research pays an increasing attention to the network-like characteristics of international R&D activities. Second, different streams of literature have emphasized the role of location- specific factors in R&D internationalization. The increasing emphasis on these aspects has created new research opportunities in some key areas, including inter alia: cross-border knowledge sourcing strategies, changes in the geography of R&D and innovation, and the international fragmentation of production and R&D activities

Effects of learned flavour cues on short-term regulation of food intake in a realistic setting

The present study examined the effects of repeated midmorning consumption of novel-flavoured low- and high-energy yoghurt drinks on subsequent energy intake at lunch in 69 adults under actual use conditions. Subjects consumed 200 ml of low- and high-energy yoghurt drinks (67 and 273 kcal/200 ml, respectively), with 20 exposures to each drink on alternate days. Analyses focused on the development of compensation for the differences in energy content of the beverages, due to learned satiety. Results revealed incomplete energy compensation for the beverages, both at first exposure and also after 20 exposures. Relative to the no-yoghurt condition, energy intake compensation (mean±S.E.M.) averaged 39±36 or the low-energy yoghurt and 17±9 or the high-energy version, with no evidence of any change in compensation with repeated exposures. When the flavours of the yoghurt drinks were covertly switched after 20 exposures, subjects increased their energy intake after the high-energy yoghurt drink containing the flavour that was previously coupled with the low-energy yoghurt drink. Vice versa, however, when subjects switched to the low-energy yoghurt drink containing the high-energy flavour, subjects ignored the flavour cue and ate the same lunch size regardless of the energy in the yoghurt drink. We conclude that adults do not readily acquire accurate conditioned adjustments for the energy content in food after repeated experience with the food in free-living natural-eating conditions

Differences in health and taste attitudes and reported behaviour among Finnish, Dutch and British consumers: a cross-national validation of the Health and Taste Attitude Scales (HTAS)

The Health and Taste Attitude Scales (HTAS) developed by Roininen, Lähteenmäki and Tuorila in 1999 measure the importance of health and taste aspects of foods in the food choice process. These multi-item scales consist of sets of statements, ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree", which further divide into three Health (General health interest, Light product interest and Natural product interest) and three Taste (Craving for sweet foods, Using food as a reward and Pleasure) sub-scales. Finnish (N=467), Dutch (N=477), and British (N=361) respondents completed a questionnaire which contained four components: the HTAS, a separate "paper and pencil task" of choosing a food for a snack; pleasantness, healthiness and frequency of consumption of eight foods; and the Restraint Eating Scale of the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ). The latter three components were included in order to validate various aspects of the HTAS. The factor structure of HTAS was found to be equal in all three countries. However, there were some minor differences in factor loadings among countries, e.g. the Natural product interest and Pleasure sub-scale items had lower factor loadings in the UK than in Finland and The Netherlands. Finnish respondents had the most positive attitude towards light products. Dutch and British respondents scored higher on all Taste sub-scales than their Finnish counterparts. Respondents' health-related attitudes were good predictors of their "healthy food choices" in the snack task and self-reported consumption. Two of the Taste sub-scales (Craving for sweet foods and Using food as a reward) predicted well respondents' self-reported consumption of, for example, full-fat chocolate bars. All the Health and two of the Taste sub-scales proved to be useful tools for characterizing consumer attitudes within and between countrie

Factors influencing blood loss and allogeneic blood transfusion practice in craniosynostosis surgery

Objective/Aims: To identify factors influencing perioperative blood loss and transfusion practice in craniosynostotic corrections. Background: Craniosynostotic corrections are associated with large amounts of blood loss and high transfusion rates. Methods: A retrospective analysis was performed of all pediatric craniosynostotic corrections during the period from January 2003 to October 2009. The primary endpoint was the receipt of an allogeneic blood transfusion (ABT) during or after surgery. Pre-, intra-, and postoperative data were acquired using the electronic hospital registration systems and patients' charts. Results: Forty-four patients were operated using open surgical techniques. The mean estimated blood loss during surgery was 55 ml·kg -1. In 42 patients, red blood cells were administered during or after surgery with a mean of 38 ml·kg -1. In 23 patients, fresh frozen plasma was administered with a mean of 28 ml·kg -1. A median of two different donors per recipient was found. Longer duration of surgery and lower bodyweight were associated with significantly more blood loss and red blood cell transfusions. Higher perioperative blood loss and surgery at an early age were correlated with a longer duration of admission. Conclusions: In this study, craniosynostotic corrections were associated with large amounts of blood loss and high ABT rates. The amount of ABT could possibly be reduced by appointing a dedicated team of physicians, by using new less-invasive surgical techniques, and by adjusting anesthetic techniques. © 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Evaluating the Impact of Menu Labeling on Food Choices and Intake

Objectives. We assessed the impact of restaurant menu calorie labels on food choices and intake