State v. Cowan: The Consequences of Montana\u27s Abolition of the Insanity Defense

State v. Cowan: The consequences of Montana\u27s abolition of the insanity defens

Engineering - young people want to be informed

Young people in developed nations recognise the contribution that science and technology make to society and acknowledge their importance now and in the future, yet few view their study as leading to interesting careers. Some countries are taking action to raise interest in science, technologies, engineering and mathematics and increase the number of students studying these subjects. One of the barriers to young people pursuing engineering is their limited or distorted perception of it - they associate it only with building and fixing things. Young people rarely encounter engineers, unlike other professionals, engineering has little or no advocacy in the media and there are few opportunities to experience engineering. Many of the pupils surveyed at the start of Engineering the Future, a three year EPSRC-funded project, wrote “don’t know what engineering is” and/or “would like more information”. This paper reports on work with researchers, policy makers and practitioners in Scotland to develop a sustainable model of activities and interactions that develops pupils’ understanding of the nature of engineering, embeds experiences of engineering within the school classroom and curriculum and promotes engineering as a career. After learning about engineering through the activities the pupils’ perceptions had improved. Almost all considered it important that young people know about engineering, because it is an essential part of everyday life and, in the words of one pupil - “If we know more about it, our minds wouldn’t stay closed to it. We would maybe take it up.

Impacts of Confined Space on Production from Tight Reservoirs

This work develops a rigorous method for including confinement effects in fluid modeling. This method was implemented into phase modeling and compositional reservoir simulation to show the impacts of tight media on hydrocarbon phase behavior and production. The rigorous aspect of this method improves upon current methods of incorporating confinement effects in both fluid modeling and reservoir simulation. It is particularly useful for porous media with small pores, where the ratio of medium surface area to fluid volume and fluid-to-rock interaction are significant. The proposed model utilizes the Peng-Robinson equation of state coupled with the Young-Laplace equation for capillary pressure. The interfacial tension is determined using the parachor model, which is dependent on phase compositions and molar volumes. Capillary pressure is therefore implemented within the vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) calculations. Contact angle is an input and can be updated as a temperature-dependent function. When implemented inside the VLE loop, calculation time is minimally impacted, making this a very efficient method. Vapor-liquid equilibrium using this method for small pores is validated by modeling cases presented in published literature. These published data are obtained either experimentally or by using molecular simulation. In all cases, the model presented in this work is able to closely match phase behavior, showing a decrease in bubble point pressure, and an increase in dew point pressure. Changes in saturation pressure approach zero as the mixture critical point is approached. Implementation of this method into compositional reservoir simulation shows that confinement generally increases oil and gas production from tight oil reservoirs and generally decreases oil and gas production from tight gas condensate reservoirs, compared with the traditional bulk compositional simulators. Simple cases of a reservoir cell can be modeled with capillary pressure using a constant-composition expansion or constant-volume depletion method. This results in a capillary pressure curve as a function of liquid saturation. With these curves, relative permeability can be predicted by integration of the reciprocal of the square of capillary pressure. Reservoir simulation of an Eagle Ford reservoir fluid at various initial pressures shows the impact of capillary pressure and relative permeability on production. At high initial reservoir pressure, oil/gas relative permeability is insignificant, but capillary pressure still significantly impacts oil production. At lower initial pressure, capillary pressure and oil/gas relative permeability both significantly impact production

Seed Quality and Dormancy of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.)

Hemp has great potential as cash crop for growers in the US because of its multiple uses in food, pharmaceutical, and industrial products. Seed quality and dormancy research had been put off for decades. The indeterminate flowering pattern of hemp results in harvesting seeds with varying maturity levels, affecting their quality. The objectives of this study were to: 1) investigate the differences in quality of seeds harvested from different locations on the same plant, 2) determine suitable viability and vigor tests for evaluating hemp seeds, and 3) examine the extent of dormancy in newly harvested seeds and develop a dormancy-breaking method. Two hemp varieties, Merlot (ML) and Berry Blossom (BB), which had smaller seeds than ML were evaluated. Seeds from the upper 2/3 part of the plants (more mature) were harvested separately from the lower 1/3 (less mature). The lower part was harvested 7 d after the upper part. Seeds were tested 21 d after harvest. Seed quality was measured by standard germination (SGT), tetrazolium (TZ), accelerated aging (AAT), and speed of germination (SGI) tests. Dormancy was measured in weekly intervals. Difference in seed size did not affect seed quality. Seeds harvested from the upper part of plants had better quality than those from the lower part, however, it became similar to the upper part after 8 d. TZ, SGT, AAT, and SGI were suitable for measuring seed quality. Both varieties had a short-lived dormancy of 35-42 d. Prechilling treatment at 10°C for 5 d was effective in breaking dormancy

An interstellar precursor mission

A mission out of the planetary system, with launch about the year 2000, could provide valuable scientific data as well as test some of the technology for a later mission to another star. Primary scientific objectives for the precursor mission concern characteristics of the heliopause, the interstellar medium, stellar distances (by parallax measurements), low energy cosmic rays, interplanetary gas distribution, and mass of the solar system. Secondary objectives include investigation of Pluto. Candidate science instruments are suggested. Individual spacecraft systems for the mission were considered, technology requirements and problem areas noted, and a number of recommendations made for technology study and advanced development. The most critical technology needs include attainment of 50-yr spacecraft lifetime and development of a long-life NEP system

Species-specific distributions of tyrosine hydroxylase–immunoreactive neurons in the prefrontal cortex of anthropoid primates

In this study, we assessed the distribution of cortical neurons immunoreactive for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in prefrontal cortical regions of humans and nonhuman primate species. Immunohistochemical methods were used to visualize TH-immunoreactive (TH-ir) neurons in areas 9 (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and 32 (anterior paracingulate cortex). The study sample included humans, great apes (chimpanzee, bonobo, gorilla, orangutan), one lesser ape (siamang), and Old World monkeys (golden guenon, patas monkey, olive baboon, moor macaque, black and white colobus, and François' langur). The percentage of neurons within the cortex expressing TH was quantified using computer-assisted stereology. TH-ir neurons were present in layers V and VI and the subjacent white matter in each of the Old World monkey species, the siamang, and in humans. TH-ir cells were also occasionally observed in layer III of human, siamang, baboon, colobus, and François' langur cortex. Cortical cells expressing TH were notably absent in each of the great ape species. Quantitative analyses did not reveal a phylogenetic trend for percentage of TH-ir neurons in these cortical areas among species. Interestingly, humans and monkey species exhibited a bilaminar pattern of TH-ir axon distributions within prefrontal regions, with layers I–II and layers V–VI having the densest contingent of axons. In contrast, the great apes had a different pattern of laminar innervation, with a remarkably denser distribution of TH-ir axons within layer III. It is possible that the catecholaminergic afferent input to layer III in chimpanzees and other great apes covaries with loss of TH-ir cells within the cortical mantle

Biochemical Specificity of von Economo Neurons in Hominoids

Objectives: Von Economo neurons (VENs) are defined by their thin, elongated cell body and long dendrites projecting from apical and basal ends. These distinctive neurons are mostly present in anterior cingulate (ACC) and fronto-insular (FI) cortex, with particularly high densities in cetaceans, elephants, and hominoid primates (i.e., humans and apes). This distribution suggests that VENs contribute to specializations of neural circuits in species that share both large brain size and complex social cognition, possibly representing an adaptation to rapidly relay socially-relevant information over long distances across the brain. Recent evidence indicates that unique patterns of protein expression may also characterize VENs, particularly involving molecules that are known to regulate gut and immune function. Methods: In this study, we used quantitative stereologic methods to examine the expression of three such proteins that are localized in VENs—activating-transcription factor 3 (ATF3), interleukin 4 receptor (IL4Rα), and neuromedin B (NMB). We quantified immunoreactivity against these proteins in different morphological classes of ACC layer V neurons of hominoids. Results:Among the different neuron types analyzed (pyramidal, VEN, fork, enveloping, and other multipolar), VENs showed the greatest percentage that displayed immunostaining. Additionally, a higher proportion of VENs in humans were immunoreactive to ATF3, IL4Rα, and NMB than in other apes. No other ACC layer V neuron type displayed a significant species difference in the percentage of immunoreactive neurons. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that phylogenetic variation exists in the protein expression profile of VENs, suggesting that humans might have evolved biochemical specializations for enhanced interoceptive sensitivity

The Corpus Callosum in Primates: Processing Speed of Axons and the Evolution of Hemispheric Asymmetry

Interhemispheric communication may be constrained as brain size increases because of transmission delays in action potentials over the length of axons. Although one might expect larger brains to have progressively thicker axons to compensate, spatial packing is a limiting factor. Axon size distributions within the primate corpus callosum (CC) may provide insights into how these demands affect conduction velocity. We used electron microscopy to explore phylogenetic variation in myelinated axon density and diameter of the CC from 14 different anthropoid primate species, including humans. The majority of axons were less than 1 µm in diameter across all species, indicating that conduction velocity for most interhemispheric communication is relatively constant regardless of brain size. The largest axons within the upper 95th percentile scaled with a progressively higher exponent than the median axons towards the posterior region of the CC. While brain mass among the primates in our analysis varied by 97-fold, estimates of the fastest cross-brain conduction times, as conveyed by axons at the 95th percentile, varied within a relatively narrow range between 3 and 9 ms across species, whereas cross-brain conduction times for the median axon diameters differed more substantially between 11 and 38 ms. Nonetheless, for both size classes of axons, an increase in diameter does not entirely compensate for the delay in interhemispheric transmission time that accompanies larger brain size. Such biophysical constraints on the processing speed of axons conveyed by the CC may play an important role in the evolution of hemispheric asymmetry

Implementation of a chemical background method for atmospheric OH measurements by laser-induced fluorescence: characterisation and observations from the UK and China

Hydroxyl (OH) and hydroperoxy (HO2) radicals are central to the understanding of atmospheric chemistry. Owing to their short lifetimes, these species are frequently used to test the accuracy of model predictions and their underlying chemical mechanisms. In forested environments, laser-induced fluorescence–fluorescence assay by gas expansion (LIF–FAGE) measurements of OH have often shown substantial disagreement with model predictions, suggesting the presence of unknown OH sources in such environments. However, it is also possible that the measurements have been affected by instrumental artefacts, due to the presence of interfering species that cannot be discriminated using the traditional method of obtaining background signals via modulation of the laser excitation wavelength (“OHwave”). The interference hypothesis can be tested by using an alternative method to determine the OH background signal, via the addition of a chemical scavenger prior to sampling of ambient air (“OHchem”). In this work, the Leeds FAGE instrument was modified to include such a system to facilitate measurements of OHchem, in which propane was used to selectively remove OH from ambient air using an inlet pre-injector (IPI). The IPI system was characterised in detail, and it was found that the system did not reduce the instrument sensitivity towards OH ( 99 %) without the removal of OH formed inside the fluorescence cell (< 5 %). Tests of the photolytic interference from ozone in the presence of water vapour revealed a small but potentially significant interference, equivalent to an OH concentration of ∼4×105 molec. cm−3 under typical atmospheric conditions of [O3] =50 ppbv and [H2O] =1 %. Laboratory experiments to investigate potential interferences from products of isoprene ozonolysis did result in interference signals, but these were negligible when extrapolated down to ambient ozone and isoprene levels. The interference from NO3 radicals was also tested but was found to be insignificant in our system. The Leeds IPI module was deployed during three separate field intensives that took place in summer at a coastal site in the UK and both in summer and winter in the megacity of Beijing, China, allowing for investigations of ambient OH interferences under a wide range of chemical and meteorological conditions. Comparisons of ambient OHchem measurements to the traditional OHwave method showed excellent agreement, with OHwave vs OHchem slopes of 1.05–1.16 and identical behaviour on a diel basis, consistent with laboratory interference tests. The difference between OHwave and OHchem (“OHint”) was found to scale non-linearly with OHchem, resulting in an upper limit interference of (5.0±1.4) ×106 molec. cm−3 at the very highest OHchem concentrations measured (23×106 molec. cm−3), accounting for ∼14 %–21 % of the total OHwave signal