Sport Skill Level and Gender with Relation to Age, Physical Development and Special Fitness of the Participants of Olympic Volleyball Tournament Beijing 2008

The aim of this study was to provide an answer to the question whether and how age, body height, body mass, body mass index and results from fitness tests are related to sport skill level and gender of the participants of the Olympic volleyball tournament. Two-Way ANOVA was used to find the dependency of the variables on the factor of sport skill level (A – teams which took places 1 to 4, B – places from 5 to 8; C – places from 9 to 12) and gender (F – female; M - male). Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. The Bonferroni’s adjustment was carried out for three p=0.017 and fifteen p=0.003 pairs of comparisons). The M and F athletes included in A-C groups (N=48 in each group) were than compared to the classification in the neural network of Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN). A combined effect of the factors of sports level and gender on the height of attack jump (F=4.13; p=0.02) and block jump (F=9.22; p<0.001) was identified. The level of achievement was modified by the differences between the men and women. A significant advantage over the groups B and C was found for attack height and block height. In the group A, the differences between the results obtained for women and men in the ranges of attack and block with respect to the net height were not significant. Mean range of block jump did not match up to attack jump, particularly in women. The application of PNN network showed that age, BMI, relative attack jump and block jump are good predictors of sport results. The percentage of properly classified players in the group of men was lower than in women (42.4 vs. 56.3%). In this regard, big differences were found at the lower level of sport results: A (77.1 vs. 79.2%), B (25.0 vs. 25.0%) and C (25.0 vs. 64.6%). In conclusion, selection for national teams should take into consideration the players with long competitive experience with adequate weight/height ratios, who exhibit good training adaptations to jumping exercise

Utjecaj latentnih motoričkih sposobnosti na uspjeh u judo borbi

The aim was to determine both the magnitude and the direction of the relations among certain motor abilities and performance in judo bouts performed in a standing position. Therefore, a sample of 122 of Zagreb’s Faculty of Kinesiology sophomores was tested. A battery of 15 motor tests was used and these were the predictor variables. The sample of criterion variables consisted of two performance indicators: the number of victories and technical efficacy points. The investigation was aimed at verifying the hypothesis that performance and final success (victory) in judo standing position bouts strongly depends on the motor features of the contestants involved. Regression and factor analyses were used. The obtained results indicate that there is a relationship between the latent motor variables and both criteria evaluating performance in standing position bouts - the number of victories and technical efficacy points.Uvod i cilj istraživanja Neprestano mijenjanje situacija, njihova dinamičnost, tijekom borbe od boraca traži dobru usvojenost tehničko-taktičkih stereotipa koje primjenjuju, sposobnost trenutačne reorganizacije tih sterotipa te stalno stvaranje novih obrambenih, napadačkih i protunapadačkih programa djelovanja. Činjenica da se tehnika juda u borbi primjenjuje uz konstantan protivnikov otpor te da svaka natjecateljska borba traje pet minuta, govori o velikoj energetskoj potrošnji judaša. Ako veličina energetske potrošnje judaša ovisi o trajanju i intenzitetu rada, karakteru tog rada te količini angažirane muskulature, onda judaš obavlja na natjecanju i treningu izuzetno težak rad praćen visokim stupnjem psihičkog naprezanja. Budući da prema pravilima natjecanja postoje i mogućnosti brzog završetka, u borbi se odvija pravi psihološki rat zbog kojega je potrošnja energije još i veća. Na uspjeh u judaškoj borbi, odnosno općenito u judu, utječu manje ili više sve ili gotovo sve čovjekove dimenzije, pa ih je sa znanstvenog aspekta potrebno ne samo utvrditi, već i ukazati na veličinu i smjer njihove povezanosti s uspjehom. Globalni je cilj ovog istraživanja utvrđivanje veličine i smjera relacija nekih motoričkih varijabli s uspjehom u borbi u stojećem stavu u judu. Metode rada Uzorak ispitanika definiran je kao skup redovnih studenata Kineziološkog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku od 122 ispitanika muškog spola, Za procjenu motoričkih sposobnosti ispitanika u ovom istraživanju izabrano je 15 motoričkih testova koji najbolje definiraju latentne dimenzije koordinacije, repetitivne snage (snažne izdržljivosti ili izdržljivosti u snazi), eksplozivne snage, brzine i fleksibilnosti. Uspjeh u borbi u stojećem stavu definiran je dvjema kriterijskim varijablama: broj pobjeda i tehničke efikasnost. Prema prvom kriteriju izračunat je broj sveukupnih pobjeda iz pet borbi, a prema drugom kriteriju sumirana je tehnička efikasnost u borbama temeljem bodova dodijeljenih (i pobjedniku i poraženomu) za izvedene akcije. Sve prediktorske i kriterijske varijable bile su podvrgnute standardnim deskriptivnim postupcima za određivanje njihovih osnovnih statističkih parametara. Izračunate su: aritmetičke sredine (Mean), standardne devijacije (SD), najniži (MIN) i najviši (MAX) rezultati te koeficijenti asimetričnosti (skewness) i spljoštenosti (kurtosis) distribucije rezultata. Latentni prostor određen je faktorskom analizom pod modelom glavnih komponenata (Hotellingova metoda). Relacije između manifestnih i latentnih motoričkih varijabli s uspjehom u borbi u stojećam stavu utvrđene su regresijskom analizom. Rezultati Analiza deskriptivnih statističkih parametara varijabli za procjenu motoričkih sposobnosti otkriva da su motoričke varijable normalno distribuirane, osim varijable čučnjevi s teretom (MRLPCT). Hotelingovom metodom glavnih komponenata, a prema G-K kriteriju, ekstrahirano je 5 značajnih glavnih komponenata matrice korelacija motoričkih mjera. Temeljem glavnih komponenatai definirano je 5 statistički značajnih faktora Definirani i imenovani su na sljedeći način: prvi faktor je nazvan relativna snaga, drugi oblimin faktor diferencira osobe prema načinu i tipu očitovanja snage, apsolutne eksplozivne i relativne repetitivne, pa ga se za potrebe interpretacije može nazvati topološki faktor. Treći izolirani faktor može se bez većih poteškoća interpretirati kao fleksibilnost, dok je četvrti faktor interpretiran kao apsolutna repetitivna snaga, a peti kao sposobnost izvođenja složenih motoričkih zadataka brzinsko-eksplozivnog tipa. Regresijskom analizom obrađen je utjecaj prediktorskog skupa na kriterij uspjeha u borbi u stojećem stavu definiranog brojem pobjeda (BRPOBJ), pri čemu je prediktorski skup činilo pet izoliranih faktora latentnih motoričkih dimenzija definiranih kao: relativna snaga, topološki faktor, fleksibilnost, apsolutna repetitivna snaga i sposobnost izvođenja složenih motoričkih zadataka brzinsko-eksplozivnog tipa. Između latentnih motoričkih dimenzija te uspjeha u borbama u stojećem stavu definiranog brojem pobjeda ostvarena je statistički značajna povezanost na razini od .01. Multipla korelacija iznosi .38, što objašnjava oko 14% ukupne varijance kriterija uspjeha u borbi u stojećem stavu definiranog brojem pobjeda. Pojedinačni pozitivan, statistički značajan doprinos objašnjenju varijance kriterija uspjeha u borbi u stojećem stavu definiranog kao broj pobjeda ostvaruju faktori imenovani kao fleksibilnost i sposobnost izvođenja složenih motoričkih zadataka brzinsko-eksplozivnog tipa. Regresijskom analizom definiran je utjecaj prediktorskog skupa izoliranih latentnih motoričkih dimenzija na kriterij za procjenu tehničke efikasnosti u borbi u stojećem stavu prema kriteriju maksimalna vrijednost bodovane akcije (BMAXB). Iz tablice je vidljivo kako je ostvarena statistički značajna povezanost prediktorskog skupa i uspjeha u judo borbi u stojećem stavu definiranog tehničkom efikasnošću prema kriteriju maksimalna vrijednost bodovane akcije i to na razini od .01. Dobivenom multiplom korelacijom od .40 objašnjeno je oko 16% ukupne varijance za procjenu tehničke efikasnosti u borbi u stojećem stavu definirane prema kriteriju maksimalna vrijednost bodovane akcije. Pojedinačni, statistički značajan doprinos objašnjenju varijance kriterija definiranog tehničkom efikasnošću prema kriteriju maksimalna vrijednost bodovane akcije ostvaruju faktori imenovani fleksibilnost, čiji parcijalni koeficijent iznosi .25, i sposobnost izvođenja složenih motoričkih zadataka brzinsko-eksplozivnog tipa, čiji parcijalni koeficijent iznosi .21. Rasprava i zaključak Statistički značajna povezanost motoričkih varijabli s kriterijima uspjeha u borbi u stojećem stavu ostvarena je u latentnom prostoru. Povezanost latentnih motoričkih dimenzija s uspjehom u borbi utvrđena je regresijskom analizom dva kriterija uspješnosti u borbi (broj pobjeda, tehnička efikasnost). Koeficijenti multiple korelacije statistički su značajni, a razine su gotovo identične (broj pobjeda - R=.38, maksimalna vrijednost bodovane akcije - R=.40), čime se objašnjava prosječno 15% varijance uspješnosti u borbi. Statistički značajan pojedinačni doprinos objašnjenju varijanci uspješnosti u borbi prema oba kriterija od pet izoliranih dimenzija imaju samo dvije, fleksibilnost i sposobnost izvođenja složenih motoričkih zadataka brzinsko-eksplozivnog tipa. Utjecaj faktora fleksibilnosti na uspješnost u borbi objašnjava se zahtjevom da natjecatelj, i u napadu i u obrani, pri izvođenju tehničkih elemenata, izvodi pokrete velikih amplituda bez prevelike krutosti mišića. Utjecaj faktora interpretiranoga kao sposobnost izvođenja složenih motoričkih zadataka brzinsko-eksplozinog tipa, koji definiraju prvenstveno koordinacijski testovi, na uspješnost u borbi tumači se zahtjevom da se specifična složena gibanja u borbi izvode brzo. Drugim riječima, kvalitetno tehničko djelovanje natjecatelja u borbi, zbog složenosti judaške tehnike, nije moguće bez sposobnosti definirane tim faktorom koji je u biti po svojoj prirodi izrazito koordinacijski

Body Composition and Somatotype of the Elite of Polish Fencers

The purpose of this study was to determine body composition and somatotype of the male fencers who were grouped by different fencing weapons. Analysis of body composition, with untrained men as background, will update the data necessary for the somatic profiles of fencers. Thirty contestants were examined during the Polish Fencing Championships in 2004. They took part in épée (n=10), foil (n=10) and sabre (n=10). They were aged 23.3±2.9; their length of training was 12.6±2.5 years, with the frequency of training 15.9±3.1 hours per week. In each weapon style there were champions and vice-champions of Poland from the year 2004. Twelve of them were classified among the first fifty contestants according to the D’Escrime International Federation (FIE) ranking. An experienced evaluator performed 10 measurements necessary to designate somatotypes by means of Heath-Carter method and to estimate the percentage of body fat and composition. Sabre fencers (weight=84.4 kg, somatotype=3.4–5.4–1.8) were heavier than both épée fencers (77.9 kg, 3.6–4.9–2.5) and foil fencers (74.9 kg, 2.9–4.2–2.8). Sabre specialists had higher mesomorphy than foil fencers (ANOVA and Bonferroni’s multi comparison test). Sabre fencers were characterized by higher fat free mass and a higher BMI and fat free mass index than fencers of the other two weapons. Discriminant analysis result was significant (p<0.01) with a relative percentage with a 72.4 and a canonical correlation coefficient 0.692, and Wilks’ l=0.385. Amongst the 30 observations used to fit the model, 22 (73.3%) were correctly classified. Against the background of non-training men, fencers were distinguished by a higher body weight (79.0 vs. 72.1 kg, t=3.97, p<0.001) and a higher height-weight ratio (43.21 vs. 42.46, t=2.24, p<0.05). Fencers’ somatotypes differed from the somatotypes of the untrained (3.3–4.8–2.3 vs. 3.7–4.3–3.1). They were characterized by their higher mesomorphy (t=2.10, p<0.05) and lower ectomorphy (t=3.48, p<0.01), as well as greater adiposity (16.8 vs. 15.7%, t=2.03, p<0.05)

Učinci različitih aspekata koordinacije na način borenja i razinu sportske vještine kadetskih judo natjecatelja

The primary aim of this study was to determine the relationship between certain aspects of coordination, the time course of a bout and sport-related skill levels in cadet judoists. The study evaluated eight judokas with high sport skill levels. Based on the analysis of tournament matches (N=66), the authors determined the activity, effectiveness of actions and the level of achievement. Ten aspects of coordination were assessed by 28 indices. It was found that a high level of adaptive ability was a prerequisite for high levels of activity during the phase I of a bout. Shorter durations of complex reaction time were correlated with higher effectiveness in both the phase I and throughout a bout. High level of visual-motor coordination was correlated with high effectiveness and its increase during the phase II of a bout. Certain aspects of coordination seem to be necessary components of the technical and tactical coaching of cadets. However, they do not correlate directly with the level of achievement.Primarni cilj ovog istraživanja bio je utvrditi povezanost između pojedinih aspekata koordinacije, tijeka borbe i razine specifičnih motoričkih znanja u judaša kadetskog uzrasta. U istraživanju je testirano osam tehnički visokokvalitetnih judaša. Na temelju analize turnirskih borbi (N=66), autori su utvrdili aktivnost, učinkovitost akcija te razinu uspjeha sportaša. Deset aspekata koordinacije bilo je procijenjeno pomoću 28 pokazatelja. Utvrđeno je da je visoka razina sposobnosti adaptacije preduvjet za visoku razinu aktivnosti tijekom prve polovice judo borbe. Kraće vrijeme kompleksne reakcije bilo je u korelaciji s višom razinom učinkovitosti u prvom dijelu borbe, ali i tijekom cijele borbe. Visoka razina vizualno-motoričke koordinacije predstavlja preduvjet za visoku razinu učinkovitosti u borbi, a razina koordinacije povećavala se tijekom drugog dijela borbe. Čini se da su određeni aspekti koordinacije komponente potrebne za tehničko-taktičko usavršavanje kadeta. Ipak, aspekti koordinacije nisu izravno povezani s razinom uspjeha na natjecanju

A study of the difficulties involved in introducing young children to judo techniques: a proposed teaching programme

Background: The study seeks to analyze the difficulty of implementing the fifteen techniques that make up the program of 1(st) Dan Black Belt in the Spanish context. The objective is to establish a sequential order, depending on the level of difficulty, allowing us to draw up a teaching program more consistent with the initiation process at early ages.Material/Methods: The sample consisted of 911 teachers whose level of experience was at least 1st Dan black belt. The instrument consists of six items and was developed to facilitate the implementation of the basic actions of pulling and pushing in terms of the direction of the technique and control of the fall, the level of difficulty in its application, the facility to adjust the technical action in relation to space and time, and level of intersegmental coordination in the implementation of each of the techniques. The study used factor analysis, descriptive and inferential variables with SPSS software. 12.0.Results: The results show that the level of difficulty in the implementation and adaptation of technology to space-time parameters are more difficult at these ages. De Ashi Harai or Okuri Ashi Harai pose an additional difficulty by introducing the element of precision.Conclusions: We suggest making a new proposal for a methodology of teaching with the aim of encouraging learning and bringing the environment closer to the sport of judo. Progress should be based on actions and techniques that facilitate the throwing of the companion, based on safety in the performance and the balance of the judoists.“Young Researcher 39 ½” Grant funded by the Archives of Bud

Anthropometrical profile of elite Spanish judoka: comparative analysis among ages

Background and Study Aim: Judo athletes usually try to maximize muscle mass and to minimize adiposity in each weight category, but few studies focused on comparisons of different age categories and little is known about sexual dimorphism among judo athletes. The aim of the study was to compare anthropometrical variables in male and female judoka from Spanish National Teams.Material and Methods: Eighty-seven national level Spanish judoka from all seven weight categories took part in this study: females (n = 46) – cadet (n = 16), junior (n = 12) and senior (n = 18); males (n = 44) – cadet (n = 18), junior (n = 15) and senior (n = 8). Body mass, height, skinfold thickness, circumferences and breadth anthropometric measurements were carried out. Somatotype components, body mass index, body fat and muscle mass were also estimated. A two way (gender and age groups) analysis of variance and Tukey test were used to compare groups.Results: (1) males were heavier, taller, had lower body fat and higher muscle mass absolute and relative values, circumferences and bone diameters, lower endomorphic and higher mesomorphic components than females; (2) for skinfold thickness males presented lower values in limbs’ sites than females, but no difference was found in trunk skinfold thicknesses; (3) few differences were found among age categories, with cadets presenting smaller flexed arm circumference and humerus epicondyle bone breadth compared to junior and seniors, and lower absolute muscle mass compared to seniors; (4) tendency for reducing sexual dimorphism in some anthropological dimensions and in endomorphic and mesomorphic components was observed across age categories.Conclusions: Morphologically high level cadet judo athletes are quite similar to older athletes and coaches can select them from these ages. These data can be used as reference to coaches and physical conditioning professionals.This research was supported in 2010 by the Consejo Superior de Deportes, Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia [Higher Council of Sports, Ministry of Education and Culture] (reference 33/UPB10/10

Three-dimensional assessment of the judo throwing techniques frequently used in competition

Background and Study Aim: Although the judo throwing techniques are not considered as injurious to the attacker, repetition of these techniques might cause repetitive strain type injuries. The goal of the study was knowledge about the degrees of flexion and extension and abduction and adduction of the main locomotive joints, performing the most employed throwing techniques in high-level competition. Material and Methods: Two world-class judoists, under the supervision of an elite Japanese expert, performed seoi-nage, uchi-mata, osoto-gari, ouchi-gari and kouchi-gari. They were analysed using three-dimensional technology. Results: Data of performance throws obtained from expert 1 and 2 respectively were very similar. Results indicate that systematic repetition of seoi-nage, uchi-mata and o-soto-gari can produce shoulder tendon pathologies. Long-term seoi-nage and uchi-mata practice might generate epicondylitis. Judokas who have suffered anterior cruciate ligament injuries must be careful when executing techniques that demand explosive knee extension (i.e. seoi-nage) against a great resistance. Judokas are not exposed to overuse injuries when they perform ouchi-gari and kouchi-gari throws. Conclusions: Systematic practice of the most employed judo throwing techniques in high-level judo can cause injuries by overuse in the upper-body joints (shoulder, elbow). Nevertheless, the lower-body joints (knee, ankle) do not seem to be at risk of injury by overuse