Competitive reactions and the cross-sales effects of advertising and promotion.

Abstract: How do competitors react to each other's price-promotion and advertising actions? How do these reactions influence the net sales impact we observe? We answer these questions by performing a large-scale empirical study of the short-run and long-run reactions to promotion and advertising shocks in over 400 consumer product categories, over a four-year time span.Competitive reaction can be passive, accommodating or retaliatory. We first develop a series of expectations on the type and intensity of reaction behavior, and on the moderators of this behavior. These expectations are assessed in two ways. First, vector-autoregressive models quantify the short-run and long-run effect of a promotion or advertising action on competitive sales and on competitive reactions. By cataloging the numerical results, we are able to formulate empirical generalizations of reaction behavior ('how do they react?'). Second, we estimate structural models of reaction intensity, in function of various market and competitive characteristics ('what are the drivers of reaction?'). Finally, by comparing our findings on reaction behavior with those on promotion and advertising effectiveness, we are able to evaluate competitive reaction behavior ('are they reacting as they should?').A major finding is that competitive reaction is predominantly passive. When it is present, it is usually retaliatory in the same instrument, but accommodating or retaliatory in a different instrument. There are very few long-run consequences of any type of reaction behavior. We also report on several moderating effects that are in line with expectations, and that support the presence of a certain amount of rationality in competitive reaction behavior.The net impact of the over-time effects of advertising and price-promotion attacks, competitive reactions and the sales effectiveness of each, is that competitors' sales are generally not affected, and especially not in the long run. We weigh the evidence that this sales neutrality is 'natural' (i.e., due to the nature of consumer response) versus 'managed' (i.e., due to the vigilance and effectiveness of competitors), and conclude in favor of the former.

The history of a War Memorial Children's Hospital in Cape Town

No Abstract. South African Medical Journal Vol. 96(9) (Part 2) 2006: 854-86

Performance data of screening mammography at a dedicated breast health centre

The original publication is available at http://www.samj.org.zaBackground. Mammographic screening has become part of routine health care. We present a first analysis of screening mammography in a dedicated breast health centre in Africa. Objective. To establish a performance benchmark and provide data for health care policy and funding decisions on screening mammography. Method. All mammography performed between January 2003 and August 2008 was entered into a prospective database. Mammography was performed exclusively by certified mammographers and double-read by experienced readers. Results. Outcomes were classified in a simplified classification system based on the Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System (BIRADS). In 40-49-year-old women, 3 192 mammograms led to a recall rate of 4.7%, a biopsy rate of 1.9% and a cancer diagnosis rate of 3.8 per 1000 examinations, for women of 50 years and older, the corresponding figures were 4 446, 5.4%, 2.6% and 9.7 per 1 000. Of the cancers detected, 31% were in situ and, of the invasive cancers, 81% were node-negative. These figures were established by a dedicated surgeon-led team and fall within the range expected in organised screening programmes in resource-rich environments, providing a first benchmark for screening mammography in Africa.Publishers' versio

Medicinal plants with cholinesterase inhibitory activity: A Review

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), a common neurodegenerative disease, is characterized by low levels in the brain of the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (ACh). Clinical treatment of this disease is palliative and relies mostly on enhancing cholinergic function by stimulation of cholinergic receptors or prolonging the availability of ACh released into the neuronal synaptic cleft by use of agents which restore or improve the levels of acetylcholine. Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), enzymes which breakdown acetylcholine, are considered as a promising strategy for the treatment of AD. A potential source of AChE and BChE inhibitors is provided by the abundance of plants in nature, and natural products continue to provide useful drugs and templates for the development of other compounds. The present work constitutes a review of the literature on 123 species of medicinal plants that have been tested for AChE inhibitory activity and 42 plant species which have been tested for BChE inhibitory activity. The plant species listed are potential cholinesterase inhibitors and may aid researchers in their study of natural products which may be useful in the treatment of AD.Key words: Alzheimer’s disease, acetylcholine, acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase and medicinal plants

Adverse Effects Associated With The Use Of South African Traditional Folk Remedies

A CAJM article on alternatives to western medical science.At least 80% of people in the South African black community use folk remedies obtained from traditional healers.1'2 The reasons for use of these remedies include community pressure, spiritual needs and lack of access to physicians. Because of the large numbers of people using them, most remedies are not likely to be harmful, but as with western medicine, folk remedies are associated with “iatrogenic” complications. Information about the potential toxicity of folk remedies is limited however, because of secrecy surrounding their use, so making the systematic study of the spectrum of clinical presentations and the nature of any toxic substances difficult. Studies from all over Africa are hampered by similar problems, but it is clear that the use of folk remedies is associated with significant morbidity and mortality across the continent

Standardization of cassava mahewu fermentation and assessment of the effects of iron sources used for fortification

Cassava root is the main staple for 70% of the population in Mozambique, particularly in inaccessible rural areas, but is known to be low in iron. Anaemia is a public health problem in mothers and preschool children in Mozambique and up to 40% of these cases are probably due to dietary iron deficiency. The World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) recognize the fortification of foodstuff as an effective method to remedy dietary deficiencies of micronutrients, including iron. Cassava mahewu, a non-alcoholic fermented beverage is prepared at subsistence level from cassava roots using indigenous procedures. The aim of the study was to standardize mahewu fermentation and investigate if the type of cassava fermented, or the iron compound used for fortification affected the final product. Roots of sweet and bitter varieties of cassava from four districts (Rapale, Meconta, Alto Molocue and Zavala) in Mozambique, were peeled, dried and pounded to prepare flour. Cassava flour was cooked and fermented under controlled conditions (45°C for 24 h). The fermentation period and temperature were set, based on the findings of a pilot study which showed that an end-point pH of about 4.5 was regularly reached after 24 h at 45°C. Cassava mahewu was fortified with ferrous sulfate (FeSO4.7H2O) or ferrous fumarate (C4H2FeO4) at the beginning (time zero) and at the end of fermentation (24 h). The amount of iron added to the mahewu was based on the average of the approved range of iron used for the fortification of maize meal. The mean pH at the endpoint was 4.5, with 0.29% titratable acidity. The pH and acidity were different to those reported in previous studies on maize mahewu, whereas the solid extract of 9.65% was found to be similar. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast growth were not significantly different in mahewu fortified with either of the iron compounds. There was no significant difference between cassava mahewu made from bitter or sweet varieties. A standard method for preparation and iron fortification of cassava mahewu was developed. It is recommended that fortification occurs at the end of fermentation when done at household level.Keywords: Cassava mahewu, fermentation, ferrous fumarate, ferrous sulfate, iron fortification, Mozambiqu

Fatalities involving illicit drug use in Pretoria, South Africa, for the period 2003 - 2012

Background. Globally, illicit drugs are responsible for many fatalities annually, yet accurate data on the nature and extent of these deaths in South Africa (SA) are lacking.Objectives. To investigate the presence and profile of illicit drugs detected in deceased persons who were subjected to medicolegal autopsies and upon whom analyses were carried out in search of illicit drugs in their body fluids at the Pretoria Medico-Legal Laboratory (PMLL), SA, over a 10-year period.Methods. A retrospective descriptive case audit was conducted for the period 2003 - 2012.Results. Screening for illicit drugs was requested in 385 out of 22 566 medicolegal autopsies. Results were available for only 281 of these cases, with 154 cases showing the presence of one or more illicit drugs. The demographic profile of positive cases indicated the majority to be male (90.3%) and white (85.1%). Decedents who tested positive for illicit drugs were predominantly aged between 20 and 30 years (51.9%). The most frequently detected drug was heroin, the presence of which was confirmed in 35.2% of cases, followed by cocaine in 19.9%. Alcohol in combination with an illicit drug or drugs was detected in 56 cases (36.4%).Conclusions. Results from this study indicate that illicit drugs were implicated in a considerable number of fatalities in Pretoria. However, it is believed that the figures are a gross under-representation of the actual number of drug users who died during this period. It is therefore recommended that further research be conducted and that drug screening be requested routinely when unnatural deaths are investigated at medicolegal mortuaries, not only to ensure the administration of justice but also to obtain more accurate data for purposes of public health programmes and improve insight into the burden of illicit drug use in SA

Branding in a Hyperconnected World: Refocusing Theories and Rethinking Boundaries

Technological advances have resulted in a hyperconnected world, requiring a reassessment of branding research from the perspectives of firms, consumers, and society. Brands are shifting away from single ownership to shared ownership, as heightened access to information and people is allowing more stakeholders to cocreate brand meanings and experiences alongside traditional brand owners and managers. Moreover, hyperconnectivity has allowed existing brands to expand their geographic reach and societal roles, while new types of branded entities (ideas, people, places, and organizational brands) are further stretching the branding space. To help establish a new branding paradigm that accounts for these changes, the authors address the following questions: (1) What are the roles and functions of brands?, (2) How is brand value (co)created?, and (3) How should brands be managed? Throughout the article, the authors also identify future research issues that require scholarly attention, with the aim of aligning branding theory and practice with the realities of a hyperconnected world

Internet access constrains science development and training at South African universities

The original publication is available at http://www.sajs.co.za/As a group of young scientists whose future careers depend increasingly on access to Internet resources, we are extremely concerned by the apparent lack of understanding of the stranglehold that current approaches to Internet pricing are placing on the development of science in South Africa.Lette

Antioxidant, acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity and cytotoxicity assessment of the crude extracts of Boophane disticha

1. IntroductionAlzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most commonneurodegenerative disease and is characterized bymemory impairment, cognitive dysfunction, behavioraldisturbances and deficits in daily living (Konrath et al,2012). Approaches to enhance cholinergic function inAD have included stimulation of cholinergic receptorsor prolonging the availability of acetylcholine (ACh)released into the neuronal synaptic cleft by inhibitingACh hydrolysis through the use of acetylcholinesterase(AChE) inhibitors (Howes and Houghton, 2003). Tacrinewas the first widely used AChE inhibitor (Summers,2006). Second generation AChE inhibitors with longerhalf-lives than tacrine, such as donepezil, galanthamineand rivastigmine, have since been developed and arecurrently in use (Shah et al, 2008). In addition, severallines of evidence indicate that reactive oxygen speciesare associated with the pathogenesis of AD, as somecellular characteristics of this disease are either causesor effects of oxidative stress (Zhu et al, 2004; Sultana etal, 2006; Konrath et al, 2012). Generally, thephysiological role of antioxidant compounds is toattenuate the oxidation chain reactions by removingfree-radical intermediates (Liu and Nair, 2010). Since alarge amount of evidence demonstrates that oxidativestress is intimately involved in age-relatedneurodegenerative diseases, there have been a numberof studies which have examined the positive effects ofantioxidants in reducing or blocking neuronal deathoccurring in the pathophysiology of these disorders(Ramassamy, 2006). Consequently, the use ofantioxidants has been explored in an attempt to slowAD progression and neuronal degeneration (Howes andHoughton, 2003).Toxicity testing is an essential requirement for thedevelopment of modern pharmaceutical compounds.Medicinal plants are assumed to have low toxicity dueto their long-term consumption by humans and animals(Luseba et al, 2007; Verschaeve and van Staden, 2008;Aremu et al, 2011). However, several studies haveshown that many plants used as food or medicine, havepotential toxic effects (Du Plooy et al, 2001; Barlow andSchlatter, 2010). Almost all known AChE inhibitors haveseveral drawbacks, such as hepatotoxicity, shortduration of biological action, low bioavailability,adverse cholinergic side effects in the periphery andnarrow therapeutic windows (Lee et al, 2011). Somecommon synthetic antioxidants including butylatedhydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene(BHT) have been reported to be toxic (Aremu et al,2011). Therefore, the search for new AChE inhibitorsand antioxidants, particularly from natural products,with low toxicity and higher efficacy continues.Many plants are reputed to have ‘anti-ageing’ or‘memory-enhancing’ effects and are used traditionallyto treat several neurodegenerative diseases (Howes andHoughton, 2003). One such plant, Boophane disticha(L.f.) Herb. belongs to the family Amaryllidaceae. It is anattractive, deciduous bulbous plant with a thickcovering of dry scales above the ground and is widelydistributed in Africa, ranging from Sudan in the north tothe Western Cape Province in the south (Wrinkle,1984). Decoctions of bulb scales are given to sedateviolent, psychotic patients while bulb infusions arereported to be used to treat mental illness (van Wykand Gericke, 2000; Sobiecki, 2002). Bulb decoctions arealso used in the treatment of headaches, abdominalpain, weakness, sharp chest pains and persistentbladder pains, as well as treatment of varicose ulcers,relief of urticaria, and cancer (Botha et al, 2005). Thisstudy was aimed at evaluating the AChE inhibitory andantioxidant activity of the bulbs and roots of B. distichato partially justify its traditional use in treatment ofneurodegenerative diseases. The safety of using thisplant in traditional medicine was also investigated byassessing its toxicity using the MTT and neutral redassays