Fact sheet: Ecology of Rusby's Milkvetch (Astragulus rusbyi), a rare endemic of northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests.

Astragalus rusbyi (Rusby's milkvetch) grows primarily in ponderosa pine forests and in aspen groves, but it also may be found in mixed-conifer forests. Populations are mainly concentrated on basaltic soils in two areas in northern Arizona: around the San Francisco Peaks (primarily on the southern and western sides of the Peaks) and also in the vicinity of Kendrick Mountain. It is ranked 'vulnerable' (G3) by NatureServe, a non-profit conservation organization, and is on the U.S. Forest Service sensitive species list for Region 3 (Southwestern Region). Some of its habitat has been subjected to large wildfires over the last few decades. Other areas have under-gone ecological restoration treatments (tree thinning and prescribed burning), and much of its range is slated to undergo such treatments in the near future. This fact sheet summarizes findings from previous research conduct-ed within its habitat and range

Fact sheet: Soil seed banks in a mature coniferous forest landscape: Dominance of native perennials and low spatial variability

Viable seeds stored in soil (soil seed banks) are important features of plant communities that contribute to site potential for restoration and recovery from disturbance (events that disrupt an ecosystem such as fire or logging). Seed banks typically contain few seeds of late-successional species. Rather, forest seed banks are normally dominated by early successional species, often short-lived (e.g., annual) and "ruderal" (weedy) species with abilities to rapidly colonize disturbed areas. When disturbance reduces the tree overstory, these species recruit, produce seed to replenish seed banks, and then often become sparse or absent aboveground as forest canopy increases. On the other hand, aboveground species of a late-successional forest often do not rely on soil seed banks. Instead, these species are usually long-lived, rendering persistent seed banks of minimal importance to their population dynamics. As a result, seed banks of late-successional forests are generally dominated by species other than those of the existing mature vegetation. Soil seed bank samples were collected on the east side of the Spring Mountains in southern Nevada (Figure 1, page 2). We used a network of Terrestrial Ecological Unit Inventory (TEUI) sites established by the U.S. Forest Service to characterize variability in environmental gradients and vegetation across the landscape. These sites were established in the centers of mapping units defined on the basis of similarity in climate, soil parent material and vegetation. With much of the study area roadless and in designated wilderness, human disturbance at the sites over the past 50-100 years is not extensive. Sample sites encompassed broad environmental and vegetation gradients across the landscape, ranging in elevation from 7,039 feet to 10,798 feet in forest types that included pinyon-juniper, pinyon pine, ponderosa pine, mixed conifer and bristlecone pine

Fact sheet: Long-term responses of Penstemon Clutei (Sunset Crater beardtongue) to root trenching and prescribed fire: Clues for population persistence

Penstemon clutei (Sunset Crater beardtongue) is a rare plant species that grows on volcanic soils northeast of Flagstaff in northern Arizona. It is primarily restricted to tephra deposits from the Sunset Crater eruption at an elevation of approximately 7,000 feet and is typically found in open ponderosa pine forests and pinyon-juniper woodlands in areas containing a sparse understory. Its conservation status is ranked "imperiled" (G2) by NatureServe, a non-profit conservation organization, and it is on the U.S. Forest Service sensitive species list for Region 3 (Southwestern Region). Observations in the field suggest a positive link between disturbances (events that disrupt the ecosystem such as fire, logging, tornadoes, and death of trees by bark beetles) and reproduction and colonization. Published information on the ecology of this species is limited to about a half-dozen studies

Working paper 29: Post-wildfire restoration of structure, composition, and function in southwestern ponderosa pine and warm/dry mixed-conifer forests.

During the last several decades, uncharacteristically large wildfires have occurred at an increasing rate in the frequent-fire forests of the western United States (Westerling et al. 2006). These extensive and severely burned forests represent a serious conservation concern and restoration need. Indeed, Fule et al. (2013, p.4) remarked that "large uncharacteristic wildfires pose one of the greatest risks to ecosystem integrity in the 21st century." Such fires may be pushing forests in the western United States toward a "tipping point" that may lead to permanent changes in structure and composition, loss of carbon into the atmosphere and loss of carbon stocks (Hurteau and North 2009, North and Hurteau 2011, Hurteau et al. 2011), and changes in hydrological function (Dore et al. 2012, Adams 2013). Forests degraded by extensive high-severity fire often also exhibit accelerated soil erosion and subsequent loss of soil productivity, expansions or invasions of non-native plant populations, loss of wildlife habitat; damaged watersheds and degraded water quality to connected streams, and/or vegetation type conversions (Figure 1). Federal land management agencies have formally separated post-fire rehabilitation into short-term stabilization and long-term restoration measures. The U.S. Forest Service Burned Area Emergency Response (BAER) program includes well-researched emergency treatments "to stabilize the burned area, protect public health and safety, and reduce the risk of additional damage to valued resources, such as water supply systems, aquatic habitat and roads" (Robichaud 2009). An immediate goal of BAER is to have protection in place prior to the first damage-producing rain event following the fire. Rehabilitation activities are implemented and can be monitored for up to three years after wildfire, and include the repair of facilities and mitigation of land and resources that are unlikely to recover on their own (Robichaud 2009). Longer-term post- fire restoration efforts have generally received much less attention, although the increasing occurrence of very large wildfires has prompted more attempts to articulate and evaluate long-term strategies (Long et al. in press). As opposed to emergency rehabilitation, ecological restoration focuses on assisting the recovery of characteristic ecological structure, process, and function. This requires an understanding of natural ranges of variability for these key attributes as well as development of reference conditions to guide management activities (Egan and Howell 2001, Margolis et al. 2013). In addition, restoration activities demand long-term commitment and evaluation. However, given the altered conditions that sometimes follow high-severity fires in previously degraded forests, successful restoration to a desired state may be difficult and costly (Scheffer et al. 2001). This working paper describes the goals of post-wildfire forest restoration, identifies the unique challenges and opportunities for management of severely burned large patches, and develops principles for restoring forests that have been burned by high-severity wildfires

Working paper 25: Strategies for enhancing and restoring rare plants and their habitats in the face of climate change and habitat destruction in the intermountain west

Adopting Leopold's sage advice to "keep every cog and wheel," the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources regards "the maintenance of existing genetic diversity and viable populations of all taxa in the wild in order to maintain biological interactions, ecological processes and function" (IUCN 2002, p. 1) as a fundamental conservation goal. Such an outlook is shared by many conservation-oriented organizations, including federal land management agencies in the United States. This Ecological Restoration Institute working paper will review various strategies land managers can use to maintain one segment of the plant world - rare plants - as we experience the current period of changing climate. Rare plants may be seen as the "seemingly useless parts," but they deserve attention. "Intelligent tinkering" through innovative biological conservation and ecological restoration strategies will be necessary to provide them with the kinds of habitat they will need for their continued survival and growth

Estimating soil seed bank characteristics in ponderosa pine forests using vegetation and forest-floor data

Soil seed banks are important for vegetation management because they contain propagules of species that may be considered desirable or undesirable for site colonization after management and disturbance events. Knowledge of seed bank size and composition before planning management activities facilitates proactive management by providing early alerts of exotic species presence and of abilities of seed banks to promote colonization by desirable species. We developed models in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests in northern Arizona to estimate the size and richness of mineral soil seed banks using readily observable vegetation and fores-floor characteristics. Regression models using three or fewer predictors explained 41 to 59 percent of the variance in 0- to 2-inch (0- to 5-cm) seed densities of total and native perennial seed banks. Key predictors included aboveground plant species richness/10.8 ft2 (1 m2), litter weight and thickness, and tree canopy type (open or closed). Both total and native perennial seed banks were larger and richer in plots containing: (1) species-rich understories, (2) sparse litter, and (3) tree canopy openings. A regression tree model estimated that seed bank density of native perennials is 14-fold greater if aboveground plant richness exceeds eight species/10.8 ft2, forest-floor leaf litter is < 1 inch (2.5 cm) thick, and tree canopies are open

Review Protocol – Final: Do non-native plants invade burned ponderosa pine forests more intensely after prescribed or wild fires?

Fire plays an integral role in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa)-dominated forests by maintaining low tree densities, a diverse understory, sparse litter accumulation, and regulating many ecosystem processes. Implementation of ecological restoration usually involves an elevated level of disturbance. Prescribed fire, mechanical removal of excess trees, and seeding with native species are common restoration practices that can perturb the soil and disturb vegetation. The disturbances generated by thinning and burning treatments can create openings for the invasion of highly competitive, non-native species. Research has shown that areas burned in wildfires can be more susceptible to non-native plant invasion than those burned in prescribed fires. In this review, we examine levels of non-native plant invasion in response to thinning and burning treatments in the ponderosa pine forests of North America. We then compare these results to levels of invasion reported in wildfires. Lastly, we analyze and describe the common factors in thinned and burned areas and wildfire areas that did not experience high levels of non-native plant invasion

Canopy-tree influences along a soil parent material gradient in Pinus-ponderosa-Quercus gambelii forests, northern Arizona

ABELLA, S. R. (Public Lands Institute and School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV 89154-2040) AND J. D. SPRINGER (Ecological Restoration Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5017). Canopy-tree influences along a soil parent material gradient in Pinus ponderosa- Quercus gambelii forests, northern Arizona. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 135: 26–36. 2008.—The distribution of canopy trees can impose within-site patterns of soil properties and understory plant composition. At ten sites spanning a soil parent material gradient in northern Arizona Pinus ponderosa-Quercus gambelii forests, we compared soils and plant composition among five canopy types: openings, Pinus ponderosa single trees, Quercus gambelii single stems, dispersed clumps, and thickets. Soil texture on average did not differ significantly among canopy types, whereas Oi horizon thickness and weight, 0–15 cm soil loss-on-ignition, and gravimetric soil moisture differed significantly among three or more canopy types. Understory plant richness per 4 m2 ranged from five species below P. ponderosa to 12 species in openings, with richness below Q. gambelii single stems significantly greater than below Q. gambelii thickets. C4 graminoids (e.g., Aristida purpurea) inhabited openings, while C3 species like Poa fendleriana also occurred below trees. The forbs Thalictrum fendleri and Lathyrus laetivirens were strongly associated with Q. gambelii dispersed clumps and thickets. We also conducted an experimental planting with T. fendleri that was consistent with these correlational results, with outplanted T. fendleri seedling survival 2–7 times greater when planted below Q. gambelii compared to openings. Previous research and our results suggest that understory species associated with Q. gambelii canopies vary regionally, but there are consistently some associated species. Canopy types affected understory vegetation similarly across soil parent materials, not supporting a hypothesis that positive plant interactions changed along soil gradients. Our results suggest that forest management that manipulates both the density and the pattern of trees, together with the growth forms of Q. gambelii trees, can induce within-site spatial patterns of soil properties and understory species

Response of a rare endemic, Penstemon clutei, to burning and reduced belowground competition

Penstemon clutei, a rare perennial beard tongue endemic to the ponderosa pine forest of the Sunset Crater volcanic field of northern Arizona, presents an opportunity to test the hypothesis that restoration of historic ecosystem conditions may enhance the sustainability of a rare species. We tested prescribed burning and root trenching treatments as proxies for the surface fires and reduced tree densities characteristic of historic ponderosa pine ecosystems in a study area at OLeary Peak, part of the Sunset Crater volcanic field (Coconino National Forest, AZ). Prescribed burning killed many mature P. clutei plants and negatively affected density for at least 3 years post-burn. In contrast, trenching to cut root competition of overstory trees led to a 1200 percent increase in P. clutei plants. Precipitation influenced the response. Seed germination experiments showed that P. clutei does not have innate dormancy. Germination rates in the lab ranged from 5 to 70 percent under a range of environmental and fire-related conditions (i.e., cold stratification, light, exposure to ash, NH4), but these factors were not statistically significant. Tested seedling establishment rates in situ were very low (0.4(percent)). These experiments suggest that the observed P. clutei population increase following severe wildfires (1973 Burnt fire, 1996 Hochderffer fire) may have been due primarily to the removal of tree competition rather than to direct fire effects. Further experimentation is suggested to develop ecological information for thoughtful integration of ecosystem restoration with the habitat needs of rare plants

Therapeutic Massage to Enhance Family Caregivers’ Well-being in a Rehabilitation Hospital

Background and purpose: A massage therapy program was implemented to address the psychological well-being of family caregivers to patients in a rehabilitation hospital. The impact of massage “dosage” on caregiver stress and psychological well-being was examined in this study. Participants’ perspectives on the program were also explored. Materials and methods: Thirty-eight family caregivers were randomized to receive either one massage per week or three massages per week for two weeks. Caregivers reported psychological symptoms and stress pre- and postprogram. Program acceptability was assessed via responses on an exit survey. Results: Overall, 79% of massages were received (89% among program completers). Post-program symptom scores were lower than baseline scores for both groups (F (1, 31) = 8.74 – 24.50, P \u3c 0.01). Exit surveys indicated high program acceptability and perceived benefits. Conclusion: Findings suggest that massage services would be welcomed, utilized, and beneficial for improving the psychological well-being of family caregivers in a rehabilitation hospital