Depenalization, diversion and decriminalization: A realist review and programme theory of alternatives to criminalization for simple drug possession

Alternatives to criminalization for the simple possession of illicit drugs are increasingly of interest to policy makers. But there is no existing theoretically based, empirically tested framework that can inform development and evaluation. This article presents a realist programme theory of such alternatives. It bases this on a realist review, which followed the Realist and Meta-narrative Evidence Syntheses: Evolving Standards (RAMESES). It describes the systematic process of searching the literature in English on nine relevant countries (Australia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Jamaica, Netherland, Portugal, the UK, the USA) for information on alternative measures in three categories: depenalization; diversion; and decriminalization. It shows how these measures – in theory and in practice – combine with pre-existing social conditions and institutional contexts to trigger mechanisms across three causal pathways (normative; criminal justice; and health and social services). It shows how some posited causal processes are more empirically supported than others. Alternative measures can reduce harms imposed by criminal justice processes without increasing drug use or related health and crime harms, but this depends on specific combinations of contexts, mechanisms and outcomes

Native seed burial and cover crop considerations for rangeland restoration

Rangeland disturbance caused by anthropogenic inputs can have long-lasting effects. One of these effects includes invasive grass encroachment and dominance leading to a decline in ecosystem function. In agriculture, annual cover crops are used (1) spatially, within rows between trees and vines or (2) temporally, between crop rotations to reduce invasive plant encroachment. Recent studies have shown that cover crops may translate as restoration strategy when establishing native grasses. This study, a pipeline installation in south Texas, was completed in February 2020. Seeding occurred in two separate trials: a Summer Trial and Winter Trial. Comparisons within each trial were made from seeding a native grass mix with or without a cover crop and timing of seeding native grasses after disturbance by measuring plant density, cover and biomass of all species. For each trial, we seeded eleven locally-adapted native grass species as part of the native grass mix, or permanent mix (PM). Six of these species, classified by two morphologies and three seral stages, were monitored for germination throughout the year with a seed burial study. Again, this study had two separate trials: a Summer Trial and Winter Trial. Plant density data revealed native grasses were most successful when seeded earlier despite the presence of a cover crop. During the Summer Trial, invasive grass density and cover substantially increased from the first year to the second. However, native grasses were not affected by changes from year one to year two. Lastly, most all native grasses, despite morphology or seral stage, if viable, will have successfully germinated within a year. These results indicate that seeding earlier within the season is critical to the success of native grasses in early establishment