Maize as Energy Crop

Maize is the predominant raw material (together with sugar cane) for the production of bioethanol, the most common and widespread biofuel, and at the same time the predominant raw material for biogas production, with the highest yields in Europe. The advantage of maize biomass over other energy plants is the fact that biomass occurs after harvesting the seed and does not require the use of a different area for its development. The main drawback of the use of maize biomass is the negative effects of removing crop residues on fertility and the physical properties of the soil. Bioethanol’s share of global biofuel production is over 94%, as many countries are replacing a portion of their fossil fuels with biofuels, according to international regulations. The choice of crops used as feedstock for the production of bioethanol is strongly associated with local climatic factors. About 60% of world bioethanol production is made with cane raw material in the Central and South American countries, with Brazil leading, while the remaining 40% from other crops with North America producing bioethanol almost exclusively from maize, and the EU uses as raw material raw starch (cereals and maize) as well as crops such as sugar beet and sweet sorghum

Organic Farming as an Essential Tool of the Multifunctional Agriculture

This chapter aims at shedding light on the annals of organic farming and at defining its past and present meaning. Low-profile attempts were made in the first half of the last century when it comes to organic farming as it developed almost independently in the German and English speaking world. Organic farming has been established as a promising and innovative method of meeting agricultural needs and food production with respect to sustainability (climate change, food security and safety, biodiversity, rural development). Its value in terms of environmental benefits is also acknowledged. The differences between organic and conventional food stem directly from the farming methods that were used during the food items’ production. Many people are unaware of some of the differences between the two practices. Agriculture has a direct effect on our environment, so understanding what goes into it is important. There are serious differences between organic and conventional farming; one of the biggest differences that is observed very frequently across all research between the two farming practices is the effect on the land. Conclusively, organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on ecosystem management and attempts to reduce or eliminate external agricultural inputs, especially synthetic ones. It is a holistic production management system that promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity

Pea rotation with sunflower and maize as energy crops: Impact of improved soil parameters on productivity increase and sustainability in East and West Thessaly plains

The introduction of pea (Pisum sativum L.) in crop rotation with maize and sunflower was studied in two soils of Thessaly plain, a heavy clay soil in Larissa (west Thessaly) and a sandy soil in Trikala (east Thessaly) plains, focusing on the effect of pisum cultivation on improving soil structure and soil fertility, as well as on the growth and productivity of the successive maize and sunflower crops. The effect of pea cultivation was studied in two cropping systems: a) pea harvested for pulse or as fodder crop, before the establishment of the spring crop, and b) pea incorporation (upon flowering) as green manure before the successive cultivation of maize (Zea mays L.) or sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), compared with the traditional maize or sunflower monocultures. The growth and productivity of legume was studied as well as its nitrogen content and the N-supply to the soil. The growth and productivity of maize and sunflower were additionally studied, in a number of distracting samplings throughout the growing period, where plant height, leaf area index, specific leaf area and fresh and dry biomass per plant organ (leaf, stem and storage organ) were determined. Four experimental fields were established in the two study soils where pea - maize and pea - sunflower rotations were introduced in the period 2007-2009. A splitplot experimental design (4x3x3) was applied in three blocks. Each block contained four main plots, comprising four levels of nitrogen fertilization; and three subplots per main plot, comprising three cultivation practices per nitrogen fertilizer level (including spring crop monoculture as control). The results demonstrated that basic N uptake (unfertilized plots) was around 75- 85 kg / ha for both studied soils, which increased significantly with the introduction of pea in the crop rotation, and particularly by 20-40 kg / ha in the case of harvesting for pulse, and up to 160-180 kg / ha (100% increase) in the case of pea incorporation into the soil as green manure. It was also found that about 37.5% of the N contained in the green manure was recovered during the next (spring) crop, thus dramatically increasing soil fertility. The resulted yield increase was about 1,6 t / ha for sunflower to 5,0 t / ha for maize (unfertilized plots) as resulted by the N uptake times the yielduptake ratio, the latter being equal to about 20 and 65 for sunflowers and maize, respectively. Incorporating pea into the soil, approximately 400-500 kg of dry matter (stems, leaves and flowers) were added as as green manure, enriching the top soil with 18-22 kg N / ha annually. Besides the spectacular increase in the basic N uptake, the introduction of pea in crop rotation, especially as green manure, greatly increased the fertilization efficiency as reflected by the increased N recovery fraction that reached up to 70%, bringing about even greater yields of the spring crops for the same nitrogen dressings. The introduction of pea in crop rotation marks a significant improvement of the structure as well as the physico-chemical properties of the soil. This effect was even more evident in the weak-structured (sandy) soil, as demonstrated by the reduction of the “instability index”, particularly during the summer periods. The soil content of organic matter, organic carbon and the nutrients N, P, K increased significantly with the introduction of pea in crop rotation, and particularly in the case of its incorporation as green manure. Nowadays, it is certain that conventional cropping systems such monocultures of high-input annual crops are both economically and environmentally unfeasible. Introducing legume crops -and particularly pisum- in crop rotation, comprises an important proposal for sustainable and economically viable production even of such highly-demanding crops in Greece and particularly in Thessaly plain, and should be seriously taken into account for future land use planning, in line with the low input sustainable agriculture.Στην παρούσα εργασία διερευνήθηκε η επίδραση της εισαγωγής καλλιέργειας μπιζελιού (Pisum sativum L.) σε αμειψισπορά με εαρινή καλλιέργεια (μπιζέλι- αραβόσιτος και μπιζέλι – ηλίανθος) στη βελτίωση της δομής και γονιμότητας του εδάφους, και στην αύξηση της παραγωγικότητας των εαρινών καλλιεργειών, σε βαρύ αργιλώδες έδαφος της Λάρισας και αμμώδες έδαφος των Τρικάλων. Η καλλιέργεια του ψυχανθούς μελετήθηκε σε δύο καλλιεργητικά συστήματα: α) ως συμμετέχουσας καλλιέργειας σε εντατικοποιημένης μορφής σύστημα αμειψισποράς για τη συγκομιδή καρπού πριν την εαρινή καλλιέργεια, και β) ως χλωρής λίπανσης με ενσωμάτωση την περίοδο ανθοφορίας του μπιζελιού, πριν την εαρινή καλλιέργεια αραβόσιτου (Zea mays L.) και ηλίανθου (Helianthus annuus L.) σε σχέση με το παραδοσιακό καθεστώς της μονοκαλλιέργειας. Η αύξηση και παραγωγικότητα του ψυχανθούς μελετήθηκε ως προς την απόδοσή του σε βιομάζα ποιοτικά (περιεκτικότητα και απόδοση σε άζωτο) και ποσοτικά κατά την εποχή της ενσωμάτωσης (ανθοφορία) και κατά την ολοκλήρωση του βιολογικού του κύκλου. Επίσης μελετήθηκαν η αύξηση και ανάπτυξη των καλλιεργειών αραβοσίτου και ηλίανθου στα δύο εδάφη, και πιο συγκεκριμένα μελετήθηκε το ύψος φυτών, ο δείκτης φυλλικής επιφάνειας, η ειδική φυλλική επιφάνεια, και τα χλωρά και ξηρά βάρη των φυτικών οργάνων (βλαστός, φύλλα και όργανα καρποφορίας) καθ’ όλη τη διάρκεια του βιολογικού κύκλου και κατά τη συγκομιδή των καλλιεργειών. Πρωτοτυπία της παρούσας έρευνας αποτελεί η διερεύνηση της εισαγωγής στην αμειψισπορά της καλλιέργειας μπιζελιού όσον αφορά την απόδοσή της σε άζωτο στις επόμενες ενεργοβόρες καλλιέργειες αραβόσιτου και ηλίανθου, σε διαφορετικά εδάφη, καθώς και η βελτίωση της δομής και γονιμότητας των εδαφών αυτών, δεδομένου ότι η διεθνής και ιδιαίτερα η ελληνική βιβλιογραφία είναι ανεπαρκής αναφορικά με αυτό το σύστημα αμειψισποράς. Για τους σκοπούς της έρευνας, εγκαταστάθηκαν τέσσερις πειραματικοί αγροί στα δύο υπό μελέτη εδάφη x δύο καλλιέργειες, π.χ. αραβοσίτου και ηλίανθου, την περίοδο 2007-2009. Εφαρμόστηκε πειραματικό σχέδιο υποδιαιρεμένων τεμαχίων (split–plot design) 4x3x3, όπου στα κύρια τεμάχια εφαρμόστηκαν τέσσερα επίπεδα αζωτούχου λίπανσης και στα τρία υποτεμάχια ανά επίπεδο αζωτούχου λίπανσης εφαρμόστηκαν οι τρεις διαφορετικές καλλιεργητικές πρακτικές ως προς το ψυχανθές (συμπεριλαμβανομένης και της μονοκαλλιέργειας του εαρινού φυτού ως μάρτυρα), σε τρεις επαναλήψεις (blocks). Τα αποτελέσματα κατέδειξαν ότι η βασική απορρόφηση Ν, που κυμαίνεται περί τα 75-85 kg/ha στα δύο εδάφη, αυξάνει σημαντικά με την εισαγωγή του μπιζελιού στην αμειψισπορά κατά 20-40 kg/ha (στην περίπτωση της συγκομιδής καρπού), έως 160-180 kg/ha (αύξηση 100%) στην περίπτωση της χλωρής λίπανσης, καταδεικνύοντας επίσης ότι περί το 37,5% του Ν που περιέχεται στη χλωρή λίπανση ανακτάται κατά την αύξηση της επόμενης (εαρινής) καλλιέργειας, αυξάνοντας έτσι θεαματικά και τη γονιμότητα του εδάφους. Αυτό με τη σειρά του σημαίνει αύξηση της απόδοσης περί τους 1,6 t/ha σε σπόρο ηλίανθου έως 5,0 t/ha σε σπόρο αραβοσίτου (χωρίς την εφαρμογή λιπάσματος) όπως προκύπτει από το γινόμενο της προσρόφησης Ν επί τον λόγο απόδοσης – απορρόφησης που βρέθηκε να ισούται περί το 20 και 65, για τον ηλίανθο και τον αραβόσιτο, αντίστοιχα. Με τη χλωρή λίπανση ενσωματώνονται περί τα 400-500 kg/στρ ξηράς ουσίας μπιζελιού (βλαστοί, φύλλα και άνθη) κατά την περίοδο της ανθοφορίας εμπλουτίζοντας το έδαφος κατά 18-22 kg N/στρ ετησίως. Εκτός της θεαματικής αύξησης της βασικής απορρόφησης του Ν στην περίπτωση της αμειψισποράς με μπιζέλι και κυρίως με τη χλωρή λίπανση, βελτιώνεται θεαματικά και η αποδοτικότητα της λίπανσης όπως αντικατοπτρίζεται με το κλάσμα ανάκτησης Ν που μπορεί να φθάσει το 70%, γεγονός που συνεπάγεται ακόμα μεγαλύτερες αποδόσεις των εαρινών καλλιεργειών για ίδιες εφαρμογές αζωτούχου λίπανσης. Η εισαγωγή της καλλιέργειας μπιζελιού σηματοδοτεί σημαντική βελτίωση της δομής και των φυσικοχημικών ιδιοτήτων του εδάφους. Ιδιαίτερα σε εδάφη με ασθενέστερη δομή, τόσο η χλωρή λίπανση όσο και η αμειψισπορά επιδρούν σημαντικά στη βελτίωση της εδαφικής δομής όπως προκύπτει από τη μείωση του «δείκτη αστάθειας», και κυρίως κατά τις θερινές περιόδους. Τα ποσοστά της οργανικής ουσίας, του οργανικού άνθρακα, και των θρεπτικών στοιχείων Ν, Ρ, Κ αυξάνονται σημαντικά με την εισαγωγή της καλλιέργειας μπιζελιού στα συμβατικά συστήματα καλλιέργειας και κυρίως στην περίπτωση της χλωρής λίπανσης. Είναι σίγουρο ότι οι παραδοσιακές ενεργοβόρες μονοκαλλιέργειες είναι πλέον περιβαλλοντικά και οικονομικά ασυμβίβαστες. Η αμειψισπορά με ψυχανθή, και ειδικότερα με καλλιέργεια μπιζελιού, αποτελεί πολύ σημαντική πρόταση για αειφορική και οικονομικά βιώσιμη παραγωγή απαιτητικών καλλιεργειών όπως ο αραβόσιτος και ο ηλίανθος στη Θεσσαλία -και την Ελλάδα γενικότερα- και πρέπει να ληφθεί σοβαρά υπόψη στο σχεδιασμό συστημάτων χρήσης γης στο άμεσο μέλλον, στα πλαίσια της αειφορικής γεωργίας χαμηλών εισροών

Effect of Different Tillage Practices on Sunflower (<i>Helianthus annuus</i>) Cultivation in a Crop Rotation System with Intercropping <i>Triticosecale</i>-<i>Pisum sativum</i>

The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of different soil tillage practices on sunflower cultivation in a rotation system with intercropping of Triticosecale-Pisum sativum. For this purpose, a two-year experimental field with a 5% slope was established in central Greece. There were four treatments with three replications each. The treatments were as follows: (a) no tillage planting parallel to the contour (NTC-PAC), (b) conventional tillage planting parallel to the contour (CTC-PAC), (c) no tillage planting perpendicular to the contour (NTC-PEC), and (d) conventional tillage planting perpendicular to the contour (CTC-PEC). During the experiment, the plant height, leaf area index, specific leaf area, plants’ total nitrogen, and plants’ proteins were measured. According to the results, the plant height ranged from 64.9 (CTC-PAC) to 85.2 cm (NTC-PEC) for the first year and between 66.5–86.5 cm in for the CTC-PAC and NTC-PEC treatments in the second year. Furthermore, the leaf area index (LAI) and specific leaf area (SLA), plants’ total nitrogen and protein content and N-uptake were affected positively by the no tillage practice. To conclude, sunflower is a promising crop in a rotation system intercropping Triticosecale-Pisum sativum, cultivated under rainfed sloping conditions

The Impact of Different Cultivation Practices on Surface Runoff, Soil and Nutrient Losses in a Rotational System of Legume&ndash;Cereal and Sunflower

Soil erosion is among the biggest problems in the agricultural sector that can affect ecosystems and human societies. A field of 5&deg; slope was selected to study the runoff, soil and nutrient loss as well as crop productivity in different treatments&mdash;conventional tillage (CT) vs. no-tillage (NT), plant vs. no plant cover, contour cultivation (CC) vs. perpendicular to the contour cultivation, (PC) under natural rainfall. The experiment was conducted in central Greece in two cultivation periods. In autumn, the field was cultivated with intercropping Triticosecale and Pisum sativum and in spring with sunflower. The total rainfall was 141.4 mm in the 1st year and 311 mm in the 2nd. We found that runoff in the treatment of no tillage with contour cultivation was 85% lower in both years compared to the no tillage-no plant control. Therefore, the contour cultivation-no tillage treatment had a positive effect by decreasing phosphorus and potassium loss from soil: indeed, there was a decrease in P and K by 55% and 62%, respectively, in the NT compared to the CC treatments. We conclude that the NT-CC treatment with plant cover was the most effective in reducing water runoff and soil nutrient loss and increasing yield

The Impact of Different Cultivation Practices on Surface Runoff, Soil and Nutrient Losses in a Rotational System of Legume–Cereal and Sunflower

Soil erosion is among the biggest problems in the agricultural sector that can affect ecosystems and human societies. A field of 5° slope was selected to study the runoff, soil and nutrient loss as well as crop productivity in different treatments—conventional tillage (CT) vs. no-tillage (NT), plant vs. no plant cover, contour cultivation (CC) vs. perpendicular to the contour cultivation, (PC) under natural rainfall. The experiment was conducted in central Greece in two cultivation periods. In autumn, the field was cultivated with intercropping Triticosecale and Pisum sativum and in spring with sunflower. The total rainfall was 141.4 mm in the 1st year and 311 mm in the 2nd. We found that runoff in the treatment of no tillage with contour cultivation was 85% lower in both years compared to the no tillage-no plant control. Therefore, the contour cultivation-no tillage treatment had a positive effect by decreasing phosphorus and potassium loss from soil: indeed, there was a decrease in P and K by 55% and 62%, respectively, in the NT compared to the CC treatments. We conclude that the NT-CC treatment with plant cover was the most effective in reducing water runoff and soil nutrient loss and increasing yield

THE USE OF UREASE INHIBITOR FERTILIZERS (AGROTAIN) AND THEIR EFFECT ON CEREAL CROPS AND COTTON YIELD

Many commercial compounds exist that promise the increasing efficiency of ureafertilizers by inhibiting urease activity in soils. Such a compound gaining incommercial importance in the last decades is N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide,broadly known with its registered trade name of “Agrotain”. In this paper, theeffect of nitrogen fertilizer dressings using Agrotain versus conventional (urea)fertilizers was studied under field conditions. In particular, the effect of threedifferent nitrogen dressings using conventional N-fertilizers and Agrotain wasinvestigated on the growth and final yield of (rainfed) durum wheat, and (irrigated)maize and cotton, grown on a fertile clay loamy soil in Velestino (Thessaly plain)area in central Greece in the year 2015. It was demonstrated that all three cropsfertilized Agrotain obtained greater chlorophyll contents and reached significantlyhigher biomass and grain yields comparing to the crops receiving traditionalnitrogen fertilization, obviously due to the more effective nitrogen release anduptake by the crops.Therefore, application of urease inhibitor fertilizers, such asAgrotain, might reduce nitrogen application dressings, reduce N-losses andnitrification, and their introduction to existing crop rotations is highly advisable

Could a Legume&ndash;Switchgrass Sod-Seeding System Increase Forage Productivity?

Nowadays, the lack of cattle feed, particularly green fodder, has become a key limiting factor in the agricultural economy. Switchgrass appears to offer a viable solution to the feed shortage. An improved cultivation practice might be needed to boost switchgrass forage production all season long. This study was conducted to quantify the positive effects of introducing different legume crops (vetch and pea), optimally fertilized, on the production and quality of mixed harvested switchgrass&ndash;legumes hay in late spring (May) and switchgrass hay harvested once more in early fall (September). The studied intercropping systems, independently of the legume species used, increased forage productivity (almost threefold), reaching 7.5 t ha&minus;1 and quality characteristics, with protein content almost rising threefold, reaching 12.5%. The aforementioned practice can assist the perennial crop (switchgrass) in providing a high hay production during the early fall harvest, even without fertilization. The overall annual economic benefit for the farmers may be increased by 90&ndash;720 &euro; per ha, depending on the prevailing weather conditions. Overall, it may be concluded that the suggested cropping system produces a significantly higher yield of cattle feed compared to traditional monocultures, improving the agricultural economy while reducing the negative effects of modern agriculture on the environment