Influence of anthropogenic and meteorological drivers on temporal patterns of ammonia emissions from agriculture in the UK

Emissions of trace gases originating from anthropogenic activities are vital input data for chemical transport models (CTMs). Other key input datasets such as meteorological drivers, and biogeochemical and physical processes have been subject to detailed investigation and research in the recent past, while the representation of spatio-temporal aspects of emission data in CTMs has been somewhat neglected. Arguably, this has less impact on the regional to hemispheric or global scale, where the grid sizes of currently applied CTMs represent well mixed average concentrations or deposition values. Evaluating model output against ground-based observations or remote sensing results on these spatial levels may not to be overly sensitive to the temporal (and spatial) profiles of emission input data. With increasing level of detail and spatio-temporal resolution, CTMs applied to determine national or local scale air quality are likely prone to be more sensitive to the spatial and temporal patterns of anthropogenic emissions. The location and timing of emission events - for instance peaks of ammonia emissions following the spring and autumn application of manure and mineral fertilisers - may well determine local concentration or deposition episodes, while not necessarily affecting seasonal or even annual mean values. In the case of agriculture, both anthropogenic activities (e.g. manure spreading and fertilizer application) and meteorological factors (e.g. temperature and seasonality) have been investigated regarding their influence on the spatiotemporal distribution of NH3 emissions (see for instance [1], [2], [4], [5] and [6]). The discussion of results in this case will focus on the impact on the deposition of acidifying and eutrophying substances, as well as the contribution to the formation of ammonium nitrates and sulphates and hence ambient concentrations of secondary particulate matter. This paper discusses results of the application of the EMEP4UK CTM on a 5 km x 5 km resolution for the whole of the United Kingdom. To evaluate the effect of changing the temporal profiles, three different model setups, e.g. using rather coarse and potentially outdated temporal profiles of the EMEP unified model, with varying degrees of detail (in this case, a monthly profile (cf. [3]) vs. 3 hourly emission values[6]) are evaluated against the AGANET measurement network stations across the UK. The discussion of results will focus on (a) the effect of temporal emission profiles on modelled vs. measured concentration/deposition values, (b) the influence on deposition of reactive nitrogen on ecosystems near ammonia sources and (c) the magnitude of influence of anthropogenic activity vs. meteorology for the dispersion of ammonia from agriculture. The results presented in this paper will help to determine the appropriate degree of detail with regard to the temporal profiles of anthropogenic emission data, as collecting detailed statistical data on anthropogenic activities for high spatially resolved model applications can be very time consuming and expensive. In addition, the effect on improving the temporal representation of emissions influenced by both anthropogenic activities and meteorological parameters can contribute to reducing uncertainties in model results that are highly relevant for policy development, e.g. covering aspects of critical load exceedance in vulnerable ecosystems or the exceedance of concentrations of PM

Sampling strategy and assessment options for environmental antimicrobial resistance in airborne microorganisms

Executive summary The appearance and spread of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) microorganisms and their genes in the environment are a major concern. While little is known about these microorganisms within the atmosphere, recent studies report of their presence in the air covering the UK. This report aims at summarizing sampling options for airborne microorganisms including assessing their potential for containing antimicrobial resistance genes and whether the microorganisms possess the capability for transmission through the atmosphere to other parts of the environment. The review extends previous works on antimicrobial resistant microorganisms in the atmosphere by • Assessing the composition of the atmospheric microbiome, where AMR organisms occur. • Determining the specification for bioaerosol samples suitable for analysis for AMR. • Reviewing methods available for bioaerosol sampling and compare them with the sample specification. The work was used to identify the most suitable approach for identifying antimicrobial resistant microorganisms in the UK atmosphere and finds the following: • Airborne fungal spores and bacteria with the potential to contain antimicrobial resistant genes may be present all year round, but the highest concentrations should be expected in the summer and autumn. • Sources of antimicrobial resistant microorganisms are expected to be mainly anthropogenic. Some sources (e.g., crop fields) will peak in summer or early autumn, while other sources (e.g., agricultural buildings or waste sites) will be linked to activities and can be more or less constant throughout the year. • It is not known if antimicrobial resistant microorganisms have spread to the wider environment and if the atmosphere contains a non-trivial, expectedly low, concentration of these harmful microorganisms. • There are two main analytical approaches to quantify biodiversity and antimicrobial resistant microorganisms. One approach is based on culturing and a second is based on molecular methods. Both have advantages and disadvantages, and it is recommended to use both approaches in campaigns and long-term monitoring. • There is no superior device for the collection of antimicrobial resistant microorganisms and the type of device depends on the objectives of the study. Many available instruments have been developed for one specific purpose. The best sampling strategy is often to combine at least two types of instruments: One type that samples directly onto growing media such as a cascade impactor and a second type that uses a set of filters such as a high-volume cascade sampler. In some cases, a cost-effective solution for long term campaigns or monitoring can be the application of semi-automatic mini cyclones. 6 of 66 • Guidelines for storing and processing of fungal spores and bacteria have been produced based on general knowledge on fungal spores, bacteria and how to handle genetic material. It is important to apply a common set of protocols, partly to allow for robust intercomparison of studies and partly to protect the samples against loss of material during transport, storage, or handling. • A decision tree and a set of questions that typically need addressing for developing a campaign has been produced, where the aim is the detection of airborne microorganisms, suspected to contain antimicrobial resistant genes. This is supported by two practical examples on how to develop a campaign at several locations addressing fungal spores or a single site campaign addressing both fungal spores and bacteria. • A number of data sets as well as models are needed for further understanding and potential mitigation. Basic atmospheric models from air quality studies are already available, while more advanced models handling viability and potential transmission have not yet been developed. The most import data sets are meteorological data supported by specific vegetation variables with land cover and land use data. Activity data around anthropogenic activities such as harvesting, handling of waste sites or animal productivity may also be important. Until now, it has not been possible to identify studies on antimicrobial resistant microorganisms covering the UK atmosphere. Consequently, it is not possible to assess the extent of the problem and whether this causes a significant risk to humans, animals, or the environment. Neither is it known if there is a trend such as increased concentrations of specific harmful microorganisms or if there is an overall increase in biodiversity of microorganisms with antimicrobial resistant genes

Application of WRF-Chem to forecasting PM10 concentration over Poland

The meteorological and chemical transport model WRF-Chem was implemented to forecast PM10 concentrations over Poland. WRF-Chem version 3.5 was configured with three one-way nested domains using the GFS meteorological data and the TNO MACC II emissions. The 48 hour forecasts were run for each day of the winter and summer period of 2014 and there is only a small decrease in model performance for winter with respect to forecast lead time. The model in general captures the variability in observed PM10 concentrations for most of the stations. However, for some locations and specific episodes, the model performance is poor and the results cannot yet be used by official authorities. We argue that a higher resolution sector-based emission data will be helpful for this analysis in connection with a focus on planetary boundary layer processes in WRF-Chem and their impact on the initial distribution of emissions on both time and space

Temperate airborne grass pollen defined by spatio-temporal shifts in community composition

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Nature Research via the DOI in this record.Grass pollen is the world’s most harmful outdoor aeroallergen. However, it is unknown how airborne pollen assemblages change across time and space. Human sensitivity varies between different species of grass that flower at different times, but it is not known whether temporal turnover in species composition match terrestrial flowering or whether species richness steadily accumulates over the grass pollen season. Here, using targeted, high-throughput sequencing, we demonstrate that all grass genera displayed discrete, temporally restricted peaks of incidence, which varied with latitude and longitude throughout Great Britain, revealing that the taxonomic composition of grass pollen exposure changes substantially across the grass pollen season.Natural Environment Research CouncilBiotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC

ECLAIRE: Effects of Climate Change on Air Pollution Impacts and Response Strategies for European Ecosystems. Project final report

The central goal of ECLAIRE is to assess how climate change will alter the extent to which air pollutants threaten terrestrial ecosystems. Particular attention has been given to nitrogen compounds, especially nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammonia (NH3), as well as Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds (BVOCs) in relation to tropospheric ozone (O3) formation, including their interactions with aerosol components. ECLAIRE has combined a broad program of field and laboratory experimentation and modelling of pollution fluxes and ecosystem impacts, advancing both mechanistic understanding and providing support to European policy makers. The central finding of ECLAIRE is that future climate change is expected to worsen the threat of air pollutants on Europe’s ecosystems. Firstly, climate warming is expected to increase the emissions of many trace gases, such as agricultural NH3, the soil component of NOx emissions and key BVOCs. Experimental data and numerical models show how these effects will tend to increase atmospheric N deposition in future. By contrast, the net effect on tropospheric O3 is less clear. This is because parallel increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations will offset the temperature-driven increase for some BVOCs, such as isoprene. By contrast, there is currently insufficient evidence to be confident that CO2 will offset anticipated climate increases in monoterpene emissions. Secondly, climate warming is found to be likely to increase the vulnerability of ecosystems towards air pollutant exposure or atmospheric deposition. Such effects may occur as a consequence of combined perturbation, as well as through specific interactions, such as between drought, O3, N and aerosol exposure. These combined effects of climate change are expected to offset part of the benefit of current emissions control policies. Unless decisive mitigation actions are taken, it is anticipated that ongoing climate warming will increase agricultural and other biogenic emissions, posing a challenge for national emissions ceilings and air quality objectives related to nitrogen and ozone pollution. The O3 effects will be further worsened if progress is not made to curb increases in methane (CH4) emissions in the northern hemisphere. Other key findings of ECLAIRE are that: 1) N deposition and O3 have adverse synergistic effects. Exposure to ambient O3 concentrations was shown to reduce the Nitrogen Use Efficiency of plants, both decreasing agricultural production and posing an increased risk of other forms of nitrogen pollution, such as nitrate leaching (NO3-) and the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N2O); 2) within-canopy dynamics for volatile aerosol can increase dry deposition and shorten atmospheric lifetimes; 3) ambient aerosol levels reduce the ability of plants to conserve water under drought conditions; 4) low-resolution mapping studies tend to underestimate the extent of local critical loads exceedance; 5) new dose-response functions can be used to improve the assessment of costs, including estimation of the value of damage due to air pollution effects on ecosystems, 6) scenarios can be constructed that combine technical mitigation measures with dietary change options (reducing livestock products in food down to recommended levels for health criteria), with the balance between the two strategies being a matter for future societal discussion. ECLAIRE has supported the revision process for the National Emissions Ceilings Directive and will continue to deliver scientific underpinning into the future for the UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution

ECLAIRE third periodic report

The ÉCLAIRE project (Effects of Climate Change on Air Pollution Impacts and Response Strategies for European Ecosystems) is a four year (2011-2015) project funded by the EU's Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP7)

Climate change impact on fungi in the atmospheric microbiome

The atmospheric microbiome is one of the least studied microbiomes of our planet. One of the most abundant, diverse and impactful parts of this microbiome is arguably fungal spores. They can be very potent outdoor aeroallergens and pathogens, causing an enormous socio-economic burden on health services and annual damages to crops costing billions of Euros. We find through hypothesis testing that an expected warmer and drier climate has a dramatic impact on the atmospheric microbiome, conceivably through alteration of the hydrological cycle impacting agricultural systems, with significant differences in leaf wetness between years (p-value <0.05). The data were measured via high-throughput sequencing analysis using the DNA barcode marker, ITS2. This was complemented by remote sensing analysis of land cover and dry matter productivity based on the Sentinel satellites, on-site detection of atmospheric and vegetation variables, GIS analysis, harvesting analysis and footprint modelling on trajectory clusters using the atmospheric transport model HYSPLIT. We find the seasonal spore composition varies between rural and urban zones reflecting both human activities (e.g. harvest), type and status of the vegetation and the prevailing climate rather than mesoscale atmospheric transport. We find that crop harvesting governs the composition of the atmospheric microbiome through a clear distinction between harvest and post-harvest beta-diversity by PERMANOVA on Bray-Curtis dissimilarity (p-value <0.05). Land cover impacted significantly by two-way ANOVA (p-value <0.05), while there was minimal impact from air mass transport over the three years. The hypothesis suggests that the fungal spore composition will change dramatically due to climate change, an until now unforeseen effect affecting both food security, human health and the atmospheric hydrological cycle. Consequently the management of crop diseases and impact on human health through aeroallergen exposure need to consider the timing of crop treatments and land management, including post harvest, to minimize exposure of aeroallergens and pathogen

Why time and space matters - arguments for the improvement of temporal emission profiles for atmospheric dispersion modeling of air pollutant emissions

Emissions of trace gases originating from anthropogenic activities are vital input data for chemical transport models (CTMs). Other key input datasets such as meteorological drivers, and biogeochemical and physical processes have been subject to detailed investigation and research in the recent past, while the representation of spatio-temporal aspects of emission data in CTMs has been somewhat neglected. Arguably, this has less impact on the regional to hemispheric or global scale, where the grid sizes of currently applied CTMs represent well mixed average concentrations or deposition values. Evaluating model output against ground-based observations or remote sensing results on these spatial levels may not to be overly sensitive to the temporal (and spatial) profiles of emission input data. With increasing level of detail and spatio-temporal resolution, CTMs applied to determine national or local scale air quality are likely prone to be more sensitive to the spatial and temporal patterns of anthropogenic emissions. The location and timing of emission events - for instance peaks of ammonia emissions following the spring and autumn application of manure and mineral fertilisers - may well determine local concentration or deposition episodes, while not necessarily affecting seasonal or even annual mean values. In a similar way, high levels of ambient ozone levels typically have very strong seasonal and diurnal variations, with effects on plants for instance varying greatly over time. In addition to that, the timing of occurrences of high ambient concentrations plays a vital role in the This paper illustrates the general need for taking into account the spatial and temporal resolution of air pollutant emissions, using some examples of recent work conducted in the UK for national scale atmospheric dispersion modeling

A mechanism for long distance transport of Ambrosia pollen from the Pannonian Plain

The pollen grains of ragweed are important aeroallergens that have the potential to be transported long distances through the air. The arrival of ragweed pollen in Nordic countries from the Pannonian Plain can occur when certain conditions are met, which this study aims to describe for the first time. Atmospheric ragweed pollen concentrations were collected at 16 pollen-monitoring sites. Other factors included in the analysis were the overall synoptic weather situation, surface wind speeds, wind direction and temperatures as well as examining regional scale orography and satellite observations. Hot and dry weather in source areas on the Pannonian Plain aid the release of ragweed pollen during the flowering season and result in the deep Planetary Boundary Layers needed to lift the pollen over the Carpathian Mountains to the north. Suitable synoptic conditions are also required for the pollen bearing air masses to move northward. These same conditions produce the jet-effect Kosava and orographic foehn winds that aid the release and dispersal of ragweed pollen and contribute towards its movement into Poland and beyond. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved