Sheep Associated-Malignant Catarrhal Fever: Past, present, and future

Members of Artiodactyla can contract the infectious disease Malignant Catarrhal Fever (MCF), which has a wide range of symptoms. Ten known viruses contribute to the disease, the two most significant ones being Ovine gamma herpes virus 2 (OvHV-2) and Alcelaphine gamma herpes virus 1 (AIHV-1). In the African subcontinent, AIHV-1 is seen in most MCF cases. In the Indian scenario, Ovine gamma herpes virus-2 is the main culprit. MCF is reported in certain pockets of India. Its threat to wildlife is not yet completely understood. In AIHV-1, wildebeests serve as the primary MCF reservoir, whereas with OvHV-2, the primary MCF reservoir is sheep. In India, OvHV-2 causes MCF in deer species, bison, and water buffaloe. The life cycle and properties of this virus are not yet wholly deciphered. To understand the impact of the disease and the threat it may pose in the future, we need to have diagnostic techniques in place. Currently, PCR is the most commonly used diagnostic technique. Work should be done on field-oriented tests like ELISA and LFA, which are helpful in areas without sophisticated lab facilities. Treatment protocols must be in place, as culling bovines is not an accepted policy in India. Probable plans for overcoming all these problems are discussed in this article

Reviewing Solutions of Scale for Canine Rabies Elimination in India

Canine rabies elimination can be achieved through mass vaccination of the dog population, as advocated by the WHO, OIE and FAO under the 'United Against Rabies' initiative. Many countries in which canine rabies is endemic are exploring methods to access dogs for vaccination, campaign structures and approaches to resource mobilization. Reviewing aspects that fostered success in rabies elimination campaigns elsewhere, as well as examples of largescale resource mobilization, such as that seen in the global initiative to eliminate poliomyelitis, may help to guide the planning of sustainable, scalable methods for mass dog vaccination. Elimination of rabies from the majority of Latin America took over 30 years, with years of operational trial and error before a particular approach gained the broad support of decision makers, governments and funders to enable widespread implementation. The endeavour to eliminate polio now enters its final stages; however, there are many transferrable lessons to adopt from the past 32 years of global scale-up. Additionally, there is a need to support operational research, which explores the practicalities of mass dog vaccination roll-out and what are likely to be feasible solutions at scale. This article reviews the processes that supported the scale-up of these interventions, discusses pragmatic considerations of campaign duration and work-force size and finally provides an examples hypothetical resource requirements for implementing mass dog vaccination at scale in Indian cities, with a view to supporting the planning of pilot campaigns from which expanded efforts can grow

Immunization of sheep with DNA coding for the variable region of anti-idiotypic antibody generates humoral and cell mediated immune responses specific for peste des petits ruminants virus

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Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis of Staphylococcus chromogenes isolated from bovine and bubaline mastitis in Karnataka

Background and Aim: In recent times, non-aureus staphylococci (NAS) have emerged as the major organisms isolated from mastitis cases in dairy animals, with a predominance of Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus chromogenes. As compared to Staphylococcus aureus, much less is known about the molecular types or the spatiotemporal epidemiology of these NAS species. In the present study, randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was employed to detect genetic polymorphisms, intraspecies diversity, and epidemiology of S. chromogenes strains (n=37) isolated from bovine and bubaline mastitis cases in the state of Karnataka. Materials and Methods: Thirty-seven S. chromogenes isolates (14 from bovines and 23 from bubaline) isolated from subclinical mastitis cases, from organized and unorganized sectors, were subjected to RAPD typing. Further, methicillin resistance was determined by cefoxitin disk diffusion method. Results: The amplified DNA fragments ranged from 150 to 3000 base pairs and yielded several RAPD profiles. Further analysis using Digital Image Correlation Engine correlation coefficient and UPGMA method showed that the 37 isolates could be classified into 12 distinct RAPD types (A to L) at 62% similarity (D=0.889). Four of the most predominant RAPD types, B, A, C, and E, in that order, and together, represented 65% of the isolates. High diversity was observed among the isolates both within farms and between geographic locations. Most of the isolates exhibited methicillin resistance. This is the first such report from India. Conclusion: In the absence of defined multilocus sequence type protocols or sufficient sequences available in the public domain, RAPD can be employed to determine genetic diversity of S. chromogenes isolates

Application and Comparative Evaluation of Fluorescent Antibody, Immunohistochemistry and Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction Tests for the Detection of Rabies Virus Antigen or Nucleic Acid in Brain Samples of Animals Suspected of Rabies in India

Accurate and early diagnosis of animal rabies is critical for undertaking public health measures. Whereas the direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) technique is the recommended test, the more convenient, direct rapid immunochemistry test (dRIT), as well as the more sensitive, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), have recently been employed for the laboratory diagnosis of rabies. We compared the three methods on brain samples from domestic (dog, cat, cattle, buffalo, horse, pig and goat) and wild (leopard, wolf and jackal) animals from various parts of India. Of the 257 samples tested, 167 were positive by all the three tests; in addition, 35 of the 36 decomposed samples were positive by RT-PCR. This is the first study in which such large number of animal samples have been subjected to the three tests simultaneously. The results confirm 100% corroboration between DFA and dRIT, buttress the applicability of dRIT in the simple and rapid diagnosis of rabies in animals, and reaffirm the suitability of RT-PCR for samples unfit for testing either by DFA or dRIT

A Comparative Evaluation of the Estimation of Rabies Virus Antibodies among Free-Roaming, Vaccinated Dogs in Bengaluru, India

Vaccination is the practical solution for the prevention of rabies in dogs. Assessment of the immunogenicity of vaccination includes estimation of specific rabies virus neutralizing antibodies (VNA) in the target species. We undertook a study to estimate the levels of VNA in free-roaming dogs with a history of rabies vaccination in Bengaluru city, India. We compared the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) and an in-house quantitative indirect ELISA (iELISA). The study area comprised the jurisdiction of Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP), the Bengaluru civic body. The BBMP, along with several non-government organizations (NGO), were conducting a trap- neuter- vaccinate- release program for the prevention of dog rabies. Serum samples were collected from 250 free-roaming dogs from representative regions of BBMP, of which 125 had a VNA titre of 0.5 IU or more by the RFFIT. Furthermore, 126 dogs showed percent positivity values (PP values) more than the cut off PP value of 57.1 by the iELISA, accounting for 50.4% of satisfactory post-vaccinal serum conversion. The sensitivity and specificity of the iELISA was 94.4% and 95.2%, respectively. Based on these data, a quantitative iELISA may be a complementary tool for sero-monitoring immune responses of free-ranging animals after rabies vaccination

Trends in therapeutic and prevention strategies for management of bovine mastitis: an overview

Mastitis is one of the most economically significant diseases for the dairy industry for backyard farmers in developing countries and high producing herds worldwide. Two of the major factors impeding reduction in the incidence of this disease is [a] the lack of availability of an effective vaccine capable of protecting against multiple etiological agents and [b] propensity of some of the etiological agents to develop persistent antibiotic resistance in biofilms. This is further complicated by the continuing revolving shift in the predominant etiological agents of mastitis, depending upon a multitude of factors such as variability in hygienic practices on farms, easy access leading to overuse of appropriate or inappropriate antibiotics at suboptimal concentrations, particularly in developing countries, and lack of compliance with the recommended treatment schedules. Regardless, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus uberis followed by Escherichia coli, Streptococcus agalactiae has become the predominant etiological agents of bovine mastitis followed Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus dysagalactiae, Klebsiella pneumonia and the newly emerging Mycoplasma bovis. Current approaches being pursued to reduce the negative economic impact of this disease are through early diagnosis of infection, immediate treatment with an antibiotic found to either inhibit or kill the pathogen(s) in vitro using planktonic cultures and the use of the currently marketed vaccines regardless of their demonstrated effectiveness. Given the limitations of breeding programs, including genetic selection to improve resistance against infectious diseases including mastitis, it is imperative to have the availability of an effective broad-spectrum, preferably cross-protective, vaccine capable of protecting against bovine mastitis for reduction in the incidence of bovine mastitis, as well as interrupting the potential cross-species transmission to humans. This overview highlights the major etiological agents, factors affecting susceptibility to mastitis, and the current status of antibiotic-based therapies and prototype vaccine candidates or commercially available vaccines against bovine mastitis as potential preventative strategies

Polymerase chain reaction for the identification of bacteria.

<p>Genomic DNA was isolated from the obtained isolates as well as reference strains, and subjected to mono- or multi-plex PCR as described in the Materials and Methods and <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0142717#pone.0142717.t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>. The experiments were repeated at least three times and representative gel pictures are shown. Note that each panel is composed from two separate gels since all the samples could not be accommodated in a single gel. <b>(A) PCR for genus-specific <i>tuf</i> genes of streptococci and staphylococci.</b> Lane designation: M, 100 bp ladder; 1–5, <i>Streptococcus</i> spp. isolates; 6, Reference strain Streptococcus AD1; 7, No template control for streptococcus; 8, Negative control (<i>S</i>. <i>aureus</i>, <i>E</i>. <i>coli</i>); 9, Reagent control; 10, Reference strain <i>S</i>. <i>aureus</i> 96; 11, No template control for staphylococcus; 12–18: <i>Staphylococcus</i> spp. isolates. <b>PCR for <i>S</i>. <i>aureus nuc</i> (lanes 1–11) and <i>E</i>. <i>coli alr</i> (lanes 12–21) genes.</b> Lane designation: M, 100 bp ladder; 1–8, <i>S</i>. <i>aureus</i> test isolates; 9, Reference strain SAU-3; 10, Negative control (<i>E</i>. <i>coli</i>); 11, No template control; 12, Negative control (<i>S</i>. <i>aureus</i>); 13, Reference strain EC11 (<i>E</i>. <i>coli</i>); 14–16, Test isolates of <i>E</i>. <i>coli</i>; 17, No template control; 18–20, Test isolates; 21, Negative control (streptococcus). <b>(B) PCR for the identification of CoNS species.</b> Lane designation: M, 100 bp ladder; 1, <i>S</i>. <i>haemolyticus</i> (MTCC 3383) control; 2, <i>S</i>. <i>sciuri</i> (MTCC 6154) control; 3, <i>S</i>. <i>saprophyticus</i> (MTCC 6155) control; 4, <i>S</i>. <i>arlettae</i> (JQ764624) control; 5, <i>S</i>. <i>chromogenes</i> (MTCC 3545) control; 6, <i>S</i>. <i>sciuri</i> (MTCC 6154) control; 7, <i>S</i>. <i>xylosus</i> (FJ90627.1) control; 8, <i>S</i>. <i>simulans</i> (AF495498.1) control; 9, <i>S</i>. <i>epidermidis</i> (MTCC 3615) control; 10, <i>S</i>. <i>haemolyticus</i> (MTCC 3383) control; 11, <i>S</i>. <i>sciuri</i> (MTCC 6154) control; 12, <i>S</i>. <i>saprophyticus</i> (MTCC 6155) control; 13, <i>S</i>. <i>arlettae</i> (JQ764624) control; 14, <i>S</i>. <i>chromogenes</i> (MTCC 3545) control; 15, <i>S</i>. <i>sciuri</i> (MTCC 6154) control; 16, <i>S</i>. <i>simulans</i> (AF495498.1) control; 17, <i>S</i>. <i>xylosus</i> (FJ90627.1) control; 18, <i>S</i>. <i>epidermidis</i> (MTCC 3615) control. This Panel represents two mutually exclusive pictures depicting the results of the standardization of one tube each of the two-tube multiplex PCR. In the left panel, primers for <i>S</i>. <i>arlettae</i>, <i>S</i>. <i>chromogenes</i>, <i>S</i>. <i>sciuri</i>, <i>S</i>. <i>epidermidis</i> and <i>S</i>. <i>saprophyticus</i> were used, and <i>S</i>. <i>haemolyticus</i>, <i>S</i>. <i>xylosus</i> and <i>S</i>. <i>simulans</i> DNA served as negative controls. In the right panel, primers for <i>S</i>. <i>equorum</i>, <i>S</i>. <i>haemolyticus</i>, <i>S</i>. <i>xylosus</i>, <i>S</i>. <i>simulans</i> and <i>S</i>. <i>fluerettii</i> were used, and <i>S</i>. <i>sciuri</i>, <i>S</i>. <i>sapryphyticus</i>, <i>S</i>. <i>arlettae</i>, <i>S</i>. <i>chromogenes</i> and <i>S</i>. <i>epidermidis</i> DNA served as negative controls. Numbers in parentheses indicate the GenBank Accession numbers or the MTCC culture designations. <b>(C) PCR for the identification of <i>Streptococcus</i> species.</b> Lane designation: M, 100 bp ladder; 1–20, Test streptococcal isolates streptococci (no amplification); 21, Negative control (<i>S</i>. <i>aureus</i>); 22, Negative control (<i>E</i>. <i>coli</i>); 23 & 24, No template control; 25, Tube 2 positive control (<i>Streptococcus</i> reference strain AD3); 26, Tube 1 positive controls (<i>Streptococcus</i> reference strains AD1 and AD6).</p