Memahami dan Menanggulangi Persoalan Ketimpangan Agraria (1)

Abstract: This article offers two contribution to literature on agrarian inequality in Indonesia, namely a conceptual approach for understanding this phenomenon and its implication on policy formulation. The first contribution includes a synthesis of some literature on various aspects of agrarian inequality. In addition, two types of agrarian inequality are distinguished according to its locus of existence, i.e. inequality of distribution which refers to unequal land tenure among different classes within smallholding agricultural sector, and inequality of allocation which refers to unequal allocation of land and other natural resources between small (family) farms and large (corporate) enterprises. The second contribution is formulation of a policy framework to resolve these two types of agrarian inequality. First of all, the politics of agrarian resources allocation should be based on the principle of positive discrimination which favors smallholders’ interests. Furthermore, to ensure this principle comes into reality, five schemes of tenure reform have to be fully integrated, namely: (re)distribution, registration, recognition, devolution and restitution. This article divided into two parts. Part 1 will focus on the first contribution (conceptual approach); meanwhile, the second contribution (policy formulation) will be further elaborated in Part 2. Keywords: agrarian inequality, land reform, politics of agrarian resources allocation, Indonesia. Intisari: Dua kontribusi diajukan artikel ini pada kepustakaan mengenai ketimpangan agraria di Indonesia, yaitu pendekatan konseptual untuk memahami gejala ketimpangan agraria ini dan implikasinya pada penyusunan kebijakan. Kontribusi pertama mencakup sintesis atas sejumlah literatur mengenai berbagai aspek ketimpangan agraria. Selain itu, dua jenis ketimpangan agraria juga dibedakan berdasarkan locus keberadaanya, yaitu ketimpangan distribusi yang berarti kesenjangan penguasaan tanah di antara berbagai kelas dalam sektor pertanian rakyat, dan ketimpangan alokasi yang berarti kesenjangan peruntukan tanah dan sumber daya alam lain antara usaha tani skala kecil (keluarga) dengan usaha skala besar (korporasi). Kontribusi yang kedua adalah formulasi suatu kerangka kebijakan untuk menanggulangi dua jenis ketimpangan agraria di atas. Pertama-tama, politik alokasi sumber-sumber agraria harus didasarkan pada prinsip diskriminasi positif yang memihak kepentingan produsen kecil. Lalu, agar prinsip ini bisa terwujud di dunia nyata, lima skema pembaruan tenurial berikut ini mesti diintegrasikan secara menyeluruh, yaitu: (re)distribusi, registrasi, rekognisi, devolusi dan restitusi. Artikel ini terbagi menjadi dua bagian. Bagian 1 akan membahas kontribusi yang pertama (pendekatan konseptual), sementara kontribusi yang kedua (formulasi kebijakan) akan dielaborasi lebih lanjut pada Bagian 2. Kata Kunci: ketimpangan agraria, land reform, politik alokasi sumber-sumber agraria, Indonesia

Inequality and Transaction Costs in A Community-based Water Supply in Rural Area Adjacent to National Park

National parks can be sensitive state-property areas since the surrounding communities generally need the parks' resources for their livelihood. This paper focuses on inequality and transaction costs in PAMSIMAS (Community-Based Water Supply and Sanitation), a water sector program in Indonesia's rural and peri-urban areas. The method used is a case study of PAMSIMAS in Tajuk, a village adjacent to Mount Merbabu National Park in Semarang Regency, Central Java. The data were gathered from documentary studies, in-depth interviews, and observations, and were analyzed using transaction cost economics and institutional analysis. This study found that the rules of PAMSIMAS, especially water pricing mechanisms, enhanced water availability but could not diminish the uncertainty of water access and transaction costs born by water users. Inequalities of endowment, power, and information among the hamlets affected how PAMSIMAS was run. Mobilization of water resources is related to property rights, which should be well-defined. Still, there was an overlapping property institution of Mount Merbabu National Park forest and its water resources; thus, the water user groups had to bear different transaction costs. The study provides suggestions for providing broader 'rules of the game' in rural water management, recognizing local conditions and prospects, acknowledging community rights to resources, and developing inclusive community participation.JEL Classification D23; P48; Q1

Sweet and bitter: trajectories of sugar cane investments in Northern Luzon, the Philippines, and Aceh, Indonesia, 2006-13

This chapter aims to understand the complex process of investment and land deal making through the in-depth study of three cases of sugar cane investment in the Philippines and Indonesia. It focuses on three different trajectories of sugar cane schemes—one in northern Luzon, the Philippines, and two in Aceh, Indonesia. By means of a processual approach, the chapter identifies critical junctures—defined as crucial moments of dealmaking and interactions in which relations among actors are renegotiated—at which the investments took decisive turns. These are the collaboration of investors and bureaucratic cooperation between different levels of government; control of the development agenda; land deal making and control over land; control of labour; and curbing resistance. The chapter thus shows that investments in sugar cane and bioethanol—which often involve land deals—usually turn out differently than originally envisaged. Implementation problems arise due to the competing strategies and interests of investors, government departments, workers, landowners, and brokers, and due to specific historical and institutional constellations. Therefore, it can be argued that the implementation of investment schemes cannot simply be understood as the implementation of a contract or an already-planned programme; it should rather be understood as a constant process of negotiation and adaptation. In such a context, the identification of critical junctures is crucial for the conduct of monitoring activities and the adoption of adaptive policies during land deal processes

Smallholder bargaining power in large-scale land deals: a relational perspective

What capacity do smallholders have to influence key decisions in large-scale land deals to their own advantage, in particular in their own localities? Though the cards are stacked against them, micro processes on the ground show great variations. We put the magnifying glass on local power dynamics to explore both opportunities and constraints to the bargaining power of smallholders as they resist land deals or struggle for (better terms of) inclusion. We propose a relational perspective, in the sense that we focus on the social relations through which smallholders may ‘produce’ power, access power resources and profit from leverage vis-à-vis investors – constrained by wider power configurations. Drawing on our research in Indonesia and the Philippines augmented with other case studies on Southeast Asia, we highlight (1) relations of interdependency with investors; (2) ‘horizontal’ relations of shared interests and identity; (3) tactical relations with state officials; (4) relations with specialists in violence; and (5) relations with supra-local civil society groups. Explorative in nature, this contribution suggests an analytical lens to study sources of smallholder bargaining power and vulnerability in large-scale land deals