Levels and distribution of self-rated health in the Kazakh population: results from the Kazakhstan household health survey 2012

BACKGROUND: The high and fluctuating mortality and rising health inequalities in post-Soviet countries have attracted considerable attention. However, there are very few individual-level data on distribution of health outcomes in Central Asian countries of the former Soviet Union. We analysed socioeconomic predictors of two self-rated health outcomes in a national survey in Kazakhstan. METHODS: We used data from the 2012 Kazakhstan Household Health Survey on 12,560 respondents aged 15+. Self-rated health, self-reported worsening of health, and a range of socio-demographic variables were collected in an interview. The self-rated health outcomes were dichotomized and logistic regression was used to estimate their associations with education, income, ownership of a car, second house and computer, marital status, ethnicity and urban/rural residence. RESULTS: The prevalence of poor/very poor self-rated health was 5.3%, and 11.0% of participants reported worse health compared to 1 year ago. After controlling for age, sex and region, all socio-demographic factors were related to self-rated health. After adjusting for all variables, education and car ownership showed the most consistent effects; the odds ratio of poor health and worsening of health were 0.43 (95% confidence interval 0.32-0.58) and 0.54 (0.44-0.68) for university vs. primary education, respectively, and 0.64 (0.51-0.82) and 0.68 (0.58-0.80) for car ownership, respectively. Unmarried persons, ethnic Russians and urban residents also had increased prevalence of poor health in multivariable models. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the limitations of using subjective health measures, these data suggest strong associations between two measures of self-rated health and a number of socioeconomic characteristics. Future studies and health policy initiatives in Kazakhstan and other Central Asian countries should take social determinants of health into account

Restructuring influences on organizational knowledge sharing: An interpretive case study

Careful consideration by managers of the potential impact of the popular strategy of economic restructuring (downsizing) on organisational structure and culture could improve the quality of organisational knowledge sharing, however this influence has not yet been addressed in the knowledge management literature. This paper explores how a strategy of downsizing may reshape organisational structure and culture and inhibit organisational knowledge sharing, drawing on an interpretive case study of knowledge sharing in an information technology services function at a large Australian education service provider. Key findings indicate that when specialised teams are downsized, subcultures may develop where teams become mistrustful and insular, and knowledge sharing is constrained across teams. Further, when a hierarchical structure is present and downsizing occurs, managers may become more cautious about sharing knowledge with subordinates. The study also suggests that Internet technologies may play a key role in helping to compensate for the shortfall in knowledge stock resulting from downsizing. In conclusion, this paper highlights an important need for companies to consider the potential negative influences of downsizing on organisational knowledge sharing

Studies on the in vivo secretion and metabolism of the steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex

This thesis consists of publications describing experiments in which the secretion of steroid hormones by the adrenal cortex was studied. The venous effluent from the adrenal glands of several mammalian species was collected under anaesthesia. Chemical methods were developed which allow the simultaneous qualitative and quantitative analysis of most steroid hormones synthesized by the adrenal cortex. These methods were applied to blood and tissue extracts. Because of the observation (paper 1) that a large proportion of the steroids in the blood is loosely associated with blood cells, whole blood samples were extracted instead of plasma alone. The experiments have given information on the type of steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex and on factors which influence the rate at which they are secreted.One group of papers is concerned with the control of aldosterone secretion in the dog (papers 2, J and 4). A detailed study of the factors which cause a rise in aldosterone secretion following acute haemorrhage (paper 2) led to the conclusion, that acute blood loss stimulates the release of hormones from the pituitary gland and the kidney. These hormones in turn cause increased aldosterone secretion. In this respect the two organs can replace each other. In dogs which prior to the experiment had been maintained for long periods of time on either very low or very high dietary sodium intake it was usually not possible to observe the aldosterone rise after blood loss.The aldosterone stimulating substance released from the pituitary gland is in all probability ACTH. This is strongly supported by a quantitative study in which aldosterone secretion was measured in the same dog before and after hypophysectomy and during subsequent infusions of ACTH (paper 3). The increase in aldosterone secretion was found to depend on the dose of ACTH, provided aldosterone secretion was not maximally stimulated by factors not of pituitary origin. In the same experiments information was obtained on the rate at which ACTH was secreted during anaesthesia and operative stress, by comparing glucocorticoid secretion rates before hypophysectomy with those after hypophysectomy, when ACTH was infused at different ratesThe condition of the circulation before and after haemorrhage was found to be important for the ability of a dog to respond to blood loss with a rise in aldosterone secretion. The occurrence of a certain type of blood pressure waves (Mayer waves) is indicative of circulatoryA second group of papers (5 - 13) is concerned with a class of corticosteroids which has so far not been studied in a systematic and quantitative manner, mainly because they are only secreted in small quantities and methods for their estimation had not been available. The papers describe the development and adaptation of paper and gaschromatographic techniques for the purpose of a qualitative and quantitative study of these steroids.Pregnenolone, progesterone, 17αOH-progesterone, 11ßOH-progesterone and the three so called adrenal androgens androstenedione, adrenosterone and 11 SOH-androstenedione were consistently found to be present in the extracts of adrenal venous blood of dogs and young pigs in concentrations similar to or higher than those of aldosterone. Hypophysectomy caused a fall in the secretion of these steroids, similar to that of the glucocorticoids (papers 6, 8 and 9) but their secretion did not cease completely, indicating that these steroids are not only secreted by an overactive gland under conditions of stress "but also under resting conditions. In addition to the above steroids, l6αOH-progesterone was found to be secreted by the adrenal gland of the young pig). Certain experimental conditions modified the secretion of pregnenolone and 11ßOH-androstenedione in a different way from that of other steroids (paper 10). Studies of this type may eventually help to explain certain clinical signs of adrenal deficiency and overactivity which cannot fully be attributed to the lack or excess of glucocorticoids or aldosterone.The quantities of progesterone secreted by the adrenal gland of the pig (papers 5, 6 and 10) and the rat (paper 11) can be of the same order as those secreted by the ovaries of the same species (paper 12) under similar experimental conditions.A comparison between the rates at which steroids are secreted with the concentrations in which they are present in the adrenal tissue of one and the same animal provides some information on the rates of steroid synthesis in vivo (papers 9 and 10). The quantity of a given steroid present in the adrenal of a pig or dog was found to correspond to the amount secreted within 0.5 to five minutes. Pregnenolone and progesterone were exceptions to this rule. Assuming that these two steroids are the most important precursors of all the steroids secreted by the adrenal, it can be calculated, that the amounts at which they are present in the adrenal will be utilized within 1-5 minutes. Any stimulus leading to an increased secretion of adrenal steroids must therefore effect an increase in the rate at which pregnenolone is formed. In accordance with this, it was found that in the rat (paper 13) stress does not only cause a rise in the adrenal concentration of corticosterone but also of pregnenolone and progesterone.The papers 10, 14 and 15 contain information on the possible use of drugs to prevent the release of ACTH caused by anaesthesia and the operative procedures required for adrenal vein cannulation. Chlorpromazine and morphine were not able to overcome this severe stress in the rat (papers 14 and 15). In dogs anaesthetised with sodium pentobarbitone in which the left adrenal vein had been cannulated, a-ethyltryptamine had an effect on steroid secretion similar to that of hypophysectomy. However it lacked this effect in dogs anaesthetised with chloralose and in dogs which had been eviscerated(paper 10).The last paper (16) deals with the mechanism by which 17α-methylandrostenediol inhibits corticosterone production by the rat adrenal.1. Holzbauer, M. and Vogt, M. 1961. Corticosteroids in plasma and cells of adrenal venous blood. J. Physiol. 157. 137 - 156. || 2. Holzbauer, M. and Vogt, M. 1966. Investigations into the causes of the rise in aldosterone secretion during haemorrhage. Parts I and II. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, 250. 243 - 310. || 3. Holzbauer, M. 1964. The part played by ACTH in determining the rate of aldosterone secretion during operative stress. J. Physiol. 172. 138 - 149. || 4. Holzbauer, M. and Vogt, M. 1964. Observations on slow rhythmic blood pressure waves (Mayer waves) in the dog. J. Physiol. 172, 5 - 7P. || 5. Heap, R. B. and Holzbauer, M. 1965. Gas chromatography of androgens, progesterone and progesterone derivatives in adrenal venous blood of pigs and dogs. J. Physiol. 183. 11 P. || 6. Heap, R. B., Holzbauer, M. and Newport, H. M. 1966. Adrenal secretion rates of C-19 and C-21 steroids before and after hypophysectomy in the pig and the dog. J. Endocr. 56. 159 - 176. || 7. Holzbauer, M. and Newport, H. M. 1967. Evidence for the presence of l6α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,2C-dione in adrenal venous blood of young pigs. J. Physiol. 191. 691 - 697. || 8. Holzbauer, M. and Newport, H. M. 1968. Secretion of 5P~ hydroxypregn-5-en-20-one (pregnenolone) by the adrenal gland. Nature, 217, 967 - 968. || 9. Holzbauer, M. and Newport, H. M. 1968. Quantitative estimation of 17α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3, 20-dione (l7αOH-progesterone) in adrenal venous blood and adrenal glands. J. Physiol. 198, 91 - 102. || 10. Holzbauer, M. and Newport, H. M. 1969. Adrenal secretion rates and adrenal tissue concentrations of pregnenolone, progesterone, 11ßOH-androstenedione and some other steroids in young pigs and dogs. J. Physiol. 200, 821 - 848. || 11. Holzbauer, M., Newport, H. K., Birmingham, M. K. and Traikov, H. 1969. Secretion of pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione (progesterone) in vivo by the adrenal gland of the rat. Nature, 221. 572 - 573. || 12. Fajer, A. B. and Holzbauer, M. 1968. Pregnenolone, progesterone and 20-dihydroprogesterone in rat ovarian blood and ovaries during the oestrous cycle. J. Physiol. 196. 99 - 101P. || 13. Holzbauer, M, and Newport, H. M. 1967. The effect of stress on the concentration of 3ß-hydroxypregn-5-en-20-one (pregnenolone) and pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione (progesterone) in the adrenal gland of the rat. J. Physiol. 193. 131 - 140. || 14. Holzbauer, M. and Vogt, M. 1954. The action of chlorpromazine on diencephalic sympathetic activity and on the release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone. Br. J. Pharmac. Chemother. 2, 402 - 407. || 15. Holzbauer, M. and Vogt, M. 1958. The release of corticotrophin during severe stress in the rat treated with pentobarbitone and morphine. Acta Endocrinologica 29. 231 - 237. || 16. Rembeisa, H., Holzbauer, M., Young, P. C. M., Birmingham, M, K. and Saffran, M, 1967. Metabolism of 17a-methylandrostenediol and 17ß-methyltestosterone by the rat adrenal gland in vitro. Endocrinology, 81, 1278 - 128

Enforcers beyond Borders: Transnational NGOs and the enforcement of international law

Scholars have studied international NGOs as advocates and service providers, but have neglected their importance in autonomously enforcing international law. We have two basic aims: first to establish the nature and significance of transnational NGO enforcement, and second to explore the factors behind its rise. NGO enforcement comprises a spectrum of practices, from indirect (e.g., monitoring and investigation), to direct enforcement (e.g., prosecution and interdiction). We explain NGO enforcement by an increased demand for the enforcement of international law, and factors that have lowered the cost of supply for non-state enforcement. Increased demand for enforcement reflects the growing gap between the increased legalization of international politics and states’ limited enforcement capacity. On the supply side, the diffusion of new technologies and greater access to new legal remedies facilitate increased non-state enforcement. We evidence these claims via case studies from the environmental and anti-corruption sectors.</jats:p

Prevalence of clinical autistic traits within a homeless population: barriers to accessing homeless services

Recent research suggests a high prevalence rate of Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC) amongst the homeless population. Although, it is well-documented that autistic people experienced many barriers to accessing health services, little is known about their challenges in accessing homeless services. Thus, the present study aimed to measure prevalence of high levels of autistic traits, and to identify barriers that prevent autistic people accessing homeless services. Participants recruited from homeless services (n = 65) completed the Autism Quotient-10 (AQ-10) alongside a questionnaire regarding perceived accessibility of homeless services. Results revealed that 18.5% of participants scored Above the Clinical Threshold of the AQ-10 (ACT-AQ). Moreover, the ACT-AQ group reported that encountering big groups in shared accommodation represent a significant barrier to engaging with homeless services. Further research is needed to identify the full degree of ASC representation and the factors that might prevent autistic homeless people accessing homeless services, and thus overcoming homelessness

Perturbations of the Richardson number field by gravity waves

An analytic solution is presented for a stratified fluid of arbitrary constant Richardson number. By computer aided analysis the perturbation fields, including that of the Richardson number can be calculated. The results of the linear analytic model were compared with nonlinear simulations, leading to the following conclusions: (1) the perturbations in the Richardson number field, when small, are produced primarily by the perturbations of the shear; (2) perturbations of in the Richardson number field, even when small, are not symmetric, the increase being significantly larger than the decrease (the linear analytic solution and the nonlinear simulations both confirm this result); (3) as the perturbations grow, this asymmetry increases, but more so in the nonlinear simulations than in the linear analysis; (4) for large perturbations of the shear flow, the static stability, as represented by N2, is the dominating mechanism, becoming zero or negative, and producing convective overturning; and (5) the convectional measure of linearity in lee wave theory, NH/U, is no longer the critical parameter (it is suggested that (H/u sub 0) (du sub 0/dz) takes on this role in a shearing flow)

Distribution in Australia and seed transmission of tobacco streak virus in parthenium hysterophorus

Distribution in Australia and seed transmission of Tobacco streak virus in Parthenium hysterophorus. Plant Dis. 93:708-712. Tobacco streak virus (TSV) was found to commonly occur in Parthenium hysterophorus, as symptomless infections, in central Queensland, Australia across a large area infested with this weed. Several isolates of TSV collected across the geographic range of P. hysterophorus were found to share identical coat protein sequence with each other and with TSV from crop plants in the same area. Seed transmission of TSV in P. hysterophorus was found to occur at rates of 6.8 to 48%. There was almost no change in the rate of TSV seed transmission when P. hysterophorus seed was stored for up to 241/2 months. Implications of this relationship between TSV and P. hysterophorus for the development of virus disease epidemics in surrounding crops are discussed. © 2009 The American Phytopathological Society

Natural host range, thrips and seed transmission of distinct Tobacco streak virus strains in Queensland, Australia

Diseases caused by Tobacco streak virus (TSV) have resulted in significant crop losses in sunflower and mung bean crops in Australia. Two genetically distinct strains from central Queensland, TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard, have been previously described. They share only 81% total-genome nucleotide sequence identity and have distinct major alternative hosts, Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium) and Verbesina encelioides (crownbeard). We developed and used strain-specific multiplex Polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) for the three RNA segments of TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard to accurately characterise the strains naturally infecting 41 hosts species. Hosts included species from 11 plant families, including 12 species endemic to Australia. Results from field surveys and inoculation tests indicate that parthenium is a poor host of TSV-crownbeard. By contrast, crownbeard was both a natural host of, and experimentally infected by TSV-parthenium but this infection combination resulted in non-viable seed. These differences appear to be an effective biological barrier that largely restricts these two TSV strains to their respective major alternative hosts. TSV-crownbeard was seed transmitted from naturally infected crownbeard at a rate of between 5% and 50% and was closely associated with the geographical distribution of crownbeard in central Queensland. TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard were also seed transmitted in experimentally infected ageratum (Ageratum houstonianum) at rates of up to 40% and 27%, respectively. The related subgroup 1 ilarvirus, Ageratum latent virus, was also seed transmitted at a rate of 18% in ageratum which is its major alternative host. Thrips species Frankliniella schultzei and Microcephalothrips abdominalis were commonly found in flowers of TSV-affected crops and nearby weed hosts. Both species readily transmitted TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard. The results are discussed in terms of how two genetically and biologically distinct TSV strains have similar life cycle strategies in the same environment