H2 - Y2 Reactions (Y = Cl, Br, I): A Comparative and Mechanistic Aspect

The reaction between hydrogen and chlorine shows resemblance to that between hydrogen and bromine but is considerably more complicated, owing to the larger number of elementary processes that play a significant part in it. The reaction scheme proposed for the hydrogen-chlorine reaction differs in several important respects from that for the hydrogen-bromine reaction. The main differences are seen to be (1) the inclusion of the reaction H + HBr → H2 + Br and the exclusion of H + HCl → H2 + Cl, and (2) the different chain-terminating steps, Br + Br → Br2 being assumed for bromine and the three processes H + O2, Cl + O2, and Cl + X in the chlorine reaction. The rather marked difference between the reactions of chlorine, bromine, and iodine with hydrogen is that the hydrogen-iodine reaction is elementary while the others are not

Anti-anxiety Activity Studies on Homoeopathic Formulations of Turnera aphrodisiaca Ward

Turnera aphrodisiaca Ward (Turneraceae) has been traditionally used for the treatment of anxiety neurosis, and as an aphrodisiac. Mother tinctures (85% ethanol extracts) of T. aphrodisiaca have also been used for the treatment of central nervous system disorders. In the present investigation, T. aphrodisiaca mother tinctures formulated by three reputed manufacturers of homoeopathic medicines (NLK, DWSG and SBL) were evaluated for their anxiolytic activity. Dried mother tinctures of T. aphrodisiaca were subjected to anxiolytic activity evaluation at various doses, i.e. 50, 75, 100, 125 or 150 mg/kg p.o. in mice using elevated plus maze apparatus. Dried mother tinctures exhibited significant anxiolytic activity at 50 mg/kg (NLK), 75 mg/kg (DWSG) and 125 mg/kg (SBL), respectively, with reference to control as well as standard (diazepam, 2 mg/kg p.o.). Mother tinctures of T. aphrodisiaca available in the market, have significant anxiolytic activity. Amongst the three mother tinctures of T. aphrodisiaca analyzed, the dry residue of NLK possesses the highest amount of anxiolytic constituent(s). To ensure uniformity and consistency of biological effects in herbal formulations, these should be standardized on the basis of bioactive markers. The authors are actively involved in isolating the bioactive constituent(s) from T. aphrodisiaca so that the plant can be standardized on the basis of biologically active constituent(s)

Farmakokinetika cefotaksima u bivolske teladi nakon višekratne primjene.

The pharmacokinetic pattern of cefotaxime following its repeated dosing was studied in buffalo calves. Cefotaxime was given at a dose rate of 13 mg/kg, first by intravenous route (i.v.) followed by intramuscular (i.m.) administration, 8 hourly for 5 days. Plasma levels of cefotaxime equivalent at different pre-determined time intervals were estimated. At 1 min, after first i.v. injection, plasma level was 71.7 ± 6.01 μg.ml-1, which gradually declined and drug was detected up to 8 h (0.09 ± 0.05 μg.ml-1). Plasma concentration of cefotaxime equivalent at 15, 20, 30 and 480 min following all repetitions was almost the same. After final intramuscular injection, peak plasma concentration (11.0 ± 0.24 μg.ml-1) was detected at 20 min, which declined to 0.08 ± 0.04 μg.ml-1 at 8 h. On comparing the data on plasma levels of repeated intramuscular injections with first intravenous injection, it was revealed that repeated intramuscular injections of cefotaxime have no prolonged therapeutic effect and lack any cumulative effect. Perusal of kinetic determinants of cefotaxime following first i.v. injection and last i.m. injection revealed no significant difference in relation to β, t1/2β, AUC, Vd(area) and ClB. Such lack of variation indicated that repeated administration of cefotaxime did not alter its disposition kinetics.Istražene su farmakokinetičke osobine cefotaksima u bivolske teladi nakon njegove višekratne primjene. Cefotaksim je bio dan u dozi od 13 mg/kg t.m. prvi puta intravenski (i.v.), a potom intramuskularno (i.m.) s razmacima od 8 sati i to tijekom 5 uzastopnih dana. U pokusu je određivana koncentracija cefotaksima u krvnoj plazmi u različitim, prethodno određenim, vremenskim razmacima. Jednu minutu nakon i.v. injekcije razina cefotaksima u plazmi bila je 71.7 ± 6.01 mg/ml te se postupno smanjivala, a niske koncentracije ovog cefalosporina utvrđene su sve do 8 sati nakon davanja (0.09 ± 0.05 mg/ml). Razine cefotaksima u plazmi bile su nepromijenjene 15, 20, 30 i 480 minuta nakon opetovanog davanja. Po posljednjoj i.m. injekciji vršna razina u plazmi utvrđena je nakon 20 minuta (11.0 ± 0.24 mg/ml), a po isteku 8 sati iznosila je 0.08 ± 0.04 mg/ml. Usporedbom vrijednosti koncentracije cefotaksima u plazmi nakon ponovljene i.m. primjene, s koncentracijama poslije prvog i.v. davanja, moglo se utvrditi da opetovane i.m. injekcije cefotaksima ne produžuju njegov terapijski učinak, tj. da se ovaj antibiotik ne kumulira u organizmu. Pažljivim promatranjem kinetičkih pokazatelja cefotaksima nakon njegove prve intravenske i posljednje intramuskularne injekcije utvrđeno je da nema signifikantnih razlika u vrijednostima kao što su: konstanta eliminacije (β), poluvrijeme eliminacije lijeka iz plazme (t1/2β), površina ispod koncentracijske krivulje lijeka u plazmi (area under the curve - AUC), prividni volumen raspodjele (Vd(area)) i ukupni klirens lijeka iz organizma (ClB). Nedostatak promjena u navedenim farmakokinetičkim pokazateljima ukazuje da višekratna primjena cefotaksima nije mijenjala kinetiku dispozicije ovog cefalosporinskog antibiotika treće generacije

Farmakokinetika cefepima u bivolske teladi s vrućicom izazvanom lipopolisaharidom bakterije E. coli

The pharmacokinetics of cefepime after its single intravenous administration (10 mg/kg) was investigated in experimentally induced fever in buffalo calves (n = 4). The fever was induced by single/repeated intravenous injection of E. coli lipopolysaccaride (1 μg/kg). The drug was estimated in plasma samples by microbiological assay using E. coli (MTCC 739) test organism. The pharmacokinetic behaviour of cefepime in febrile animals was described by a two compartment open model. At 1 min, the concentration of cefepime in plasma was 40.8 ± 0.98 μg/mL which rapidly declined to 23.0 ± 0.64 μg/mL at 15 min. The drug was detected up to 24 h. The elimination half-life and volume of distribution were 3.00 ± 0.18 h and 0.42 ± 0.02 L/kg, respectively. The distribution half-life, AUC and total body clearance (ClB) were 0.08 ± 0.002 h, 101 ± 7.65 μg/mL.h and 98.8 ± 6.06 mL/kg/h, respectively. To maintain a minimum therapeutic concentration of 1 μg/mL, a satisfactory dosage regimen of cefepime in febrile buffalo calves would be 7 mg/kg repeated at 12 h intervals.Istražena je farmakokinetika cefepima u bivolske teladi (n = 4) s pokusno izazvanom vrućicom nakon njegove jednokratne intravenske primjene (10 mg/kg). Vrućica je bila izazvana jednokratnom ili ponovljenom intravenskom primjenom lipopolisaharida bakterije E. coli (1 μg/kg). Farmakokinetika lijeka određivana je u uzorcima plazme mikrobiološkim postupkom upotrebom soja E. coli (MTCC 739). Farmakokinetičko ponašanje cefepima u febrilnih životinja opisano je na osnovi dva otvorena modela. U prvoj minuti koncentracija cefepima u plazmi iznosila je 40,8 ± 0,98 μg/mL, a u 15. se naglo smanjila na 23,0 ± 0,64 μg/mL. Lijek je bio dokazan do 24 sata nakon davanja. Poluvrijeme njegova izlučivanja iznosilo je 3,00 ± 0,18 h, a količina raspodjele 0,42 ± 0,02 L/kg. Poluvrijeme njegove raspodjele iznosilo je 0,08 ± 0,002 h, površine ispod koncentracijske krivulje u plazmi 101 ± 7.65 μg/mL, a ukupni klirens iz organizma (ClB) 98,8 ± 6,06 mL/kg/h. Za održavanje minimalne terapijske koncentracije od 1 μg/mL cefepim bi u febrilne bivolske teladi trebalo davati u dozi od 7 mg/kg s ponovljenom primjenom u razmaku od 12 sati

Farmakokinetika cefepima u bivolske teladi s vrućicom izazvanom lipopolisaharidom bakterije E. coli

The pharmacokinetics of cefepime after its single intravenous administration (10 mg/kg) was investigated in experimentally induced fever in buffalo calves (n = 4). The fever was induced by single/repeated intravenous injection of E. coli lipopolysaccaride (1 μg/kg). The drug was estimated in plasma samples by microbiological assay using E. coli (MTCC 739) test organism. The pharmacokinetic behaviour of cefepime in febrile animals was described by a two compartment open model. At 1 min, the concentration of cefepime in plasma was 40.8 ± 0.98 μg/mL which rapidly declined to 23.0 ± 0.64 μg/mL at 15 min. The drug was detected up to 24 h. The elimination half-life and volume of distribution were 3.00 ± 0.18 h and 0.42 ± 0.02 L/kg, respectively. The distribution half-life, AUC and total body clearance (ClB) were 0.08 ± 0.002 h, 101 ± 7.65 μg/mL.h and 98.8 ± 6.06 mL/kg/h, respectively. To maintain a minimum therapeutic concentration of 1 μg/mL, a satisfactory dosage regimen of cefepime in febrile buffalo calves would be 7 mg/kg repeated at 12 h intervals.Istražena je farmakokinetika cefepima u bivolske teladi (n = 4) s pokusno izazvanom vrućicom nakon njegove jednokratne intravenske primjene (10 mg/kg). Vrućica je bila izazvana jednokratnom ili ponovljenom intravenskom primjenom lipopolisaharida bakterije E. coli (1 μg/kg). Farmakokinetika lijeka određivana je u uzorcima plazme mikrobiološkim postupkom upotrebom soja E. coli (MTCC 739). Farmakokinetičko ponašanje cefepima u febrilnih životinja opisano je na osnovi dva otvorena modela. U prvoj minuti koncentracija cefepima u plazmi iznosila je 40,8 ± 0,98 μg/mL, a u 15. se naglo smanjila na 23,0 ± 0,64 μg/mL. Lijek je bio dokazan do 24 sata nakon davanja. Poluvrijeme njegova izlučivanja iznosilo je 3,00 ± 0,18 h, a količina raspodjele 0,42 ± 0,02 L/kg. Poluvrijeme njegove raspodjele iznosilo je 0,08 ± 0,002 h, površine ispod koncentracijske krivulje u plazmi 101 ± 7.65 μg/mL, a ukupni klirens iz organizma (ClB) 98,8 ± 6,06 mL/kg/h. Za održavanje minimalne terapijske koncentracije od 1 μg/mL cefepim bi u febrilne bivolske teladi trebalo davati u dozi od 7 mg/kg s ponovljenom primjenom u razmaku od 12 sati

A COMPARATIVE CLINICAL STUDY OF HINGVADI CHURNA AND RAJAH-PRAVARTANI-VATI ON KASHTARTAVA W.S.R TO PRIMARY DYSMENORRHOEA

Primary dysmenorrhoea can be correlated with Kashtartava which is characterized by painful menstruation. According to Ayurveda, pain is an indication of Vata Vikriti – ‘Na hi vaatadrite Shoolam’. Apana Vayu has been given prime importance in Gynecological disorders. Normal menstruation is the function of the Apanavata, so painful menstruation is considered as Apanavatadushti. Vyana Vata has control over the muscles which brings about actions such as contraction, relaxation, extension, flexion etc. According to Acharya Charaka, Vata plays a key role in all types of Yoni Roga. As Vata is the main causative factor, it should be treated first. According to Acharya Vagbhata all measures capable of suppressing Vata are indicated. Till date, no successful advances have been made in the management of Primary dysmenorrhoea by conventional medicine. The best evidence-based treatments are NSAIDs and hormonal contraceptives but they have a lot of side effects. Owing to the gravity of the situation, need is felt for search of safe/more effective, palatable oral dosage forms to reduce pain during menstrual period. A systematic review of studies in developing countries performed by Harlow and Campbell has revealed that about 25-50% of adult women and about 75% of adolescents experience pain during menstruation. It is a randomized comparative clinical trial with 30 patients fulfilling the inclusion criteria were selected for the trial. The selected patients were randomly divided into 2 groups, 15 patients each. The duration of treatment was from 7th day due date of menstrual cycle to next menstrual cycle for 60 days. The assessment was done after each cycle on 5th day of cycle and follow-up for the next menstrual cycle. The test of significance showed that the efficacy of Hingvadi churna is more than Rajahpravartini vati in Kashtartava

Therapeutic Patient Education in Transgender Care

This communication visits the concept of therapeutic patient education (TPE), and explores its relevance to transgender health care. It suggests a novel term, therapeutic education (TE), and defines it as “educational activities essential to the optimization of health, offered by health care providers duly trained in the field of education, designed to help a transgender individual (or a group of individuals and their families) to manage their treatment and prevent avoidable complications, while maintaining or improving their quality of life. It describes the soft and hard skills required for TE, and suggests a classification that can help in structuring TE programs

FORMULATION AND IN-VITRO-IN-VIVO EVALUATION OF ALGINATE-CHITOSAN MICROSPHERES OF GLIPIZIDE BY IONIC GELATION METHOD

Objective: The present work is aimed to formulate and evaluate alginate-chitosan microspheres of glipizide for the effective use in the treatment of diabetes.Methods: Sustained release microspheres were prepared by gentle mixing of polymers in water phase with drug by agitation. The polymers used for preparation were sodium alginate and chitosan, which was extruded into 5% calcium chloride solution to produce microspheres by ionic gelation method.Results: Single unit dosage form of Glipizide causes gastric irritation. To convert it in to the multiple unit dosage form will release the drug evenly throughout the stomach which suppresses the irritation. The aim of study towards formulation and evaluation of alginate-chitosan microspheres, which can provide sustained release of the model drug. It shows better in-vitro and in-vivo activity than conventional dosage forms. The work also aims to study various parameters affecting the behavior of microspheres in oral dosage form. Conclusion:  Drugs that are simply absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and having a short half life are eliminated rapidly from the blood flow. To avoid this trouble, the oral sustained release (SR) has been developed as these will release the drug slowly in to the GIT and maintain a stable drug concentration in the serum for a longer period of time