On the existence and implications of nonbelieved memories

In this article, we review the state of knowledge about a previously-assumed-to-be-rare memory phenomenon called nonbelieved memories. Nonbelieved memories are a counterintuitive phenomenon in which vivid autobiographical memories are no longer believed to have happened even though vivid recollective features remain present. Such memories stand in contrast to the more typical situation that when events are recollected they are also believed to have genuinely occurred. We review data on the frequency, characteristics, and factors that contribute to the development of naturally occurring and laboratory-induced nonbelieved memories and discuss the relationships of nonbelieved memories with theories of autobiographical remembering and the study of remembering in applied domains

Invited commentary on Brewin and Andrews (2016)

Brewin and Andrews (2006) make many cogent observations on the state of knowledge about the development of false autobiographical beliefs and false recollections. Due to inconsistent use of terminology and imprecise definitions, the framework they propose does not clearly map onto the studies that are summarized; making the resulting estimates of the magnitude of effects across studies unconvincing. A singular focus on the development of ‘full memories’ is not explained, and the key role of autobiographical belief in influencing behavior is under emphasized. Furthermore the legal applications discussed are not well defined and are limited in scope. Fostering false belief or false imagery for events such as childhood abuse is unacceptable, whether or not suggested events come to be experienced as a vivid believed recollections

Reasons for withdrawing belief in vivid autobiographical memories

Previous studies have shown that many people hold personal memories for events that they no longer believe occurred. This study examines the reasons that people provide for choosing to reduce autobiographical belief in vividly recollected autobiographical memories. A body of nonbelieved memories provided by 374 individuals was reviewed to develop a qualitatively derived categorization system. The final scheme consisted of 8 major categories (in descending order of mention): social feedback, event plausibility, alternative attributions, general memory beliefs, internal event features, consistency with external evidence, views of self/others, and personal motivation; and numerous sub-categories. Independent raters coded the reports and judged the primary reason that each person provided for withdrawing belief. The nature of each category, frequency of category endorsement, category overlap, and phenomenological ratings are presented, following which links to related literature and implications are discussed. This study documents that a wide variety of recollective and non-recollective sources of information influence decision-making about the occurrence of autobiographical events

Religious, Social, and Family Influences in the Socialization of Arab Muslim Women

The study is an examination of religious, social, and family influences in the socialization of Arab Muslim women. It deals primarily with urban, middle class women of Palestinian, Egyptian, and Kuwaiti backgrounds as observed during the author's two-year stay in Kuwait and on shorter trips to Beirut, Cairo, and Amman. Extensive use of the relevant literature and interviews with Arab women from different backgrounds provided added information. Some of the differences and similarities between the urban society of the author's experience and the more extensively-studied, traditionally-oriented rural and village areas are discussed. Special attention is given to acceptable avenues of change existant in the society which have often gone unnoticed by researchers. An attempt is also made to contrast the author's observations with the view of Arab women often encountered in the literature and in the popular stereotype. It is suggested that a more dynamic and comprehensive perspective, attuned to the variations and complexities of societies in the Middle East, would be of value in future research on the area.Sociolog

The Information Used to Judge Supportiveness Depends on Whether the Judgment Reflects the Personality of Perceivers, Objective Characteristics of Targets or Their Unique Relationships

People who judge their relationships as more supportive enjoy better mental health than people who judge their relationships more negatively. We investigated how people made these judgments; specifically, how people weighed different types of information about targets under three different conditions: when judgments reflected the personality of perceivers, the objective characteristics of targets, and the unique relationships between perceivers and targets. Participants (i.e., perceivers) judged the same four videotaped targets on personality, similarity to perceivers and likely supportiveness. As in previous research, perceivers based their judgments on perceived target similarity to perceivers, and on target personality. However, how perceivers weighed personality and similarity information varied dramatically depending upon whether the judgment reflected the personality of perceivers, the objective characteristics of targets, or the relationship between perceivers and targets. Implications for understanding how people make support judgments were discussed

Sub-types of nonbelieved memories reveal differential outcomes of challenges to memories

Nonbelieved memories (NBMs) highlight the independence between metamemorial judgments that contribute to the experience of remembering. Initial definitions of NBMs portrayed them as involving the withdrawal of autobiographical belief despite sustained recollection. While people rate belief for their NBMs as weaker than recollection, the average difference is too small to support the idea that belief is completely withdrawn in all cases. Furthermore, ratings vary considerably across NBMs. In two studies, we reanalyzed reports from prior studies to examine whether NBM reports reflect a single category or multiple sub-categories using cluster analytic methods. In Study 1, we identified three sub-types of NBMs. In Study 2 we incorporated the concept of belief in accuracy, and found that two of the clusters from Study 1 split into two clusters apiece. Higher ratings of recollection than belief in occurrence characterized all clusters, which were differentiated by the degree of difference between these variables. In both studies the clusters were differentiated by a number of memory characteristic ratings and by reasons reported as leading to the alteration of belief. Implications for understanding the remembering of past events and predicting the creation of NBMs are discussed

An ‘interteaching’ informed approach to instructing large undergraduate classes

A novel approach to teaching large undergraduate courses using methods derived from ‘interteaching’ was investigated. Students in two large sections of undergraduate abnormal psychology received preparation guides, and took part in in-class discussion sessions during which instructors circulated to answer questions. Following discussion, students completed interteaching reports, based upon which instructors prepared clarifying lectures. Regression analyses revealed significant positive associations between attendance at discussion sessions and course performance, after controlling for academic average and student motivation. Performance for writing assignments involving critical and analytical thinking was significantly higher than in prior offerings of the course. A majority of students expressed a preference for the instructional methods. This instructional approach thus facilitated effective learning and may be more effective than traditional lecture based practices

The role of belief in occurrence within autobiographical memory

This article examines the idea that believing that events occurred in the past is a non-memorial decision that reflects underlying processes that are distinct from recollecting events. Research on autobiographical memory has often focused on events that are both believed to have occurred and remembered, thus tending to overlook the distinction between autobiographical belief and recollection. Studying event representations such as false memories, believed-not-remembered events, and non-believed memories shows the influence of non-memorial processes on evaluations of occurrence. Believing that an event occurred and recollecting an event may be more strongly dissociated than previously stated. The relative independence of these constructs was examined in 2 studies. In Study 1, multiple events were cued, and then each was rated on autobiographical belief, recollection, and other memory characteristics. In Study 2, participants described a nonbelieved memory, a believed memory, and a believed-not-remembered event, and they made similar ratings. In both studies, structural equation modeling techniques revealed distinct belief and recollection latent variables. Modeling the predictors of these factors revealed a double dissociation: Perceptual, re-experiencing, and emotional features predicted recollection and not belief, whereas event plausibility strongly predicted belief and weakly predicted recollection. The results show that judgments of autobiographical belief and recollection are distinct, that each is influenced by different sources of information and processes, and that the strength of their relationship varies depending on the type of event under study. The concept of autobiographical belief is elaborated, and implications of the findings are discussed in relation to decision making about events, social influence on memory, metacognition, and recognition processes

Nonbelieved memories in the false memory archive

The False Memory Archive is a unique art collection containing hundreds of false memory reports submitted by members of the general population. The current study aimed to analyse these reports. Specifically, we examined whether some of the memories reported in these submissions were better described as nonbelieved memories (NBMs). Furthermore, we investigated the reasons for why people decided that their memory was false and assessed the verification strategies that people used to validate their mental representation. Five hundred submissions were coded and more than half (53.4%) met the criteria for NBMs. Social feedback was the most frequently reported reason for reducing belief and asking family members was the most frequently mentioned memory verification strategy. Reports categorized as NBMs were more likely to include mention of memory verification strategies than were believed memories