Elucidating the nutritional dynamics of fungi using stable isotopes

Abstract Mycorrhizal and saprotrophic (SAP) fungi are essential to terrestrial element cycling due to their uptake of mineral nutrients and decomposition of detritus. Linking these ecological roles to specific fungi is necessary to improve our understanding of global nutrient cycling, fungal ecophysiology, and forest ecology

The impact of the permafrost carbon feedback on global climate

Degrading permafrost can alter ecosystems, damage infrastructure, and release enough carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) to influence global climate. The permafrost carbon feedback (PCF) is the amplification of surface warming due to CO2 and CH4 emissions from thawing permafrost. An analysis of available estimates PCF strength and timing indicate 120 ± 85 Gt of carbon emissions from thawing permafrost by 2100. This is equivalent to 5.7 ± 4.0% of total anthropogenic emissions for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) representative concentration pathway (RCP) 8.5 scenario and would increase global temperatures by 0.29 ± 0.21 °C or 7.8 ± 5.7%. For RCP4.5, the scenario closest to the 2 °C warming target for the climate change treaty, the range of cumulative emissions in 2100 from thawing permafrost decreases to between 27 and 100 Gt C with temperature increases between 0.05 and 0.15 °C, but the relative fraction of permafrost to total emissions increases to between 3% and 11%. Any substantial warming results in a committed, long-term carbon release from thawing permafrost with 60% of emissions occurring after 2100, indicating that not accounting for permafrost emissions risks overshooting the 2 °C warming target. Climate projections in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), and any emissions targets based on those projections, do not adequately account for emissions from thawing permafrost and the effects of the PCF on global climate. We recommend the IPCC commission a special assessment focusing on the PCF and its impact on global climate to supplement the AR5 in support of treaty negotiation

The Permafrost Regionalization Map (PeRM): How well do observations, models and experiments represent the circumarctic-scale spatial variability in permafrost carbon vulnerability?

A large amount of organic carbon stored in permafrost soils across the high latitudes is vulnerable to thaw, decomposition and release to the atmosphere as a result of climate warming. Findings from observational, experimental and modeling studies all suggest that this process could lead to a significant positive feedback on future radiative forcing from terrestrial ecosystems to the Earth’s climate system. With respect to the magnitude and timing of this feedback, however, observational data show large variability across sites, experimental studies are few, and different models result in a wide range of responses. These issues represent fundamental limitations on improving our confidence in projecting future permafrost carbon release and associated climate feedbacks. Recent studies have brought new insight into – and even quantitative estimates for – these issues through broader data synthesis and model-data integration approaches. But, how representative of the circumarcticscale variability in permafrost carbon vulnerability are the data and models from these studies? To address this question, we developed a geospatial data synthesis and analysis framework designed to represent and characterize the variability in permafrost carbon vulnerability across the northern high latitudes. Here, we describe the rationale and methods used to develop the regionalization scheme, and then use the framework to assess the spatial representativeness of, and the variability described by, existing data sets defining the fundamental components and environmental drivers of permafrost carbon vulnerability. The Permafrost Regionalization Map (PeRM) considers the regional-scale environmental factors that generally determine the spatial variability in permafrost carbon vulnerability across the Arctic. The broadly-defined regional classification is based on a circumarctic spatial representation of the major environmental controls on a) the rate and extent of permafrost degradation and thaw, b) the quantity and quality of soil organic matter stocks, and c) the form of permafrost carbon emissions as CO2 and CH4. We chose a generalized, pragmatic approach that resulted in a feasible number of regional subdivisions (i.e.,‘reporting units’) based on an intersection of spatial data layers according to permafrost extent, permafrost distribution, climate regime, biome and terrain. The utility of the PeRM framework is demonstrated here through areal density analysis and spatial summaries of existing data collections describing the fundamental components of permafrost carbon vulnerability. We use this framework to describe the spatial representativeness and variability in measurements within and across PeRM regions using observational data sets describing active layer thickness, soil pedons and carbon storage, long-term incubations for carbon turnover rates, and site-level monitoring of CO2 and CH4 fluxes from arctic tundra and boreal forest ecosystems. We then use these regional summaries of the observational data to benchmark the results of a process-based biogeochemical model for its skill in representing the magnitudes and spatial variability in these key indicators. Finally, we discuss the on-going use of this framework as a basis for higher-resolution mapping of key regions of particular vulnerability to both press (active layer thickening) and pulse (thermokarst development) disturbances. This work is guiding on-going research toward characterizing permafrost degradation and associated vegetation changes through multi-scale remote sensing. Overall, this spatial data synthesis framework work provides a critical bridge between the abundant but disordered observational and experimental data collections and the development of higher-complexity process representation of the permafrost carbon feedback in geospatial modeling frameworks

Permafrost

Permafrost is perennially frozen ground, such as soil, rock, and ice. In permafrost regions, plant and microbial life persists primarily in the near-surface soil that thaws every summer, called the ‘active layer’ (Figure 20). The cold and wet conditions in many permafrost regions limit decomposition of organic matter. In combination with soil mixing processes caused by repeated freezing and thawing, this has led to the accumulation of large stocks of soil organic carbon in the permafrost zone over multi-millennial timescales. As the climate warms, permafrost carbon could be highly vulnerable to climatic warming. Permafrost occurs primarily in high latitudes (e.g. Arctic and Antarctic) and at high elevation (e.g. Tibetan Plateau, Figure 21). The thickness of permafrost varies from less than 1 m (in boreal peatlands) to more than 1 500 m (in Yakutia). The coldest permafrost is found in the Transantarctic Mountains in Antarctica (−36°C) and in northern Canada for the Northern Hemisphere (-15°C; Obu et al., 2019, 2020). In contrast, some of the warmest permafrost occurs in peatlands in areas with mean air temperatures above 0°C. Here permafrost exists because thick peat layers insulate the ground during the summer. Most of the permafrost existing today formed during cold glacials (e.g. before 12 000 years ago) and has persisted through warmer interglacials. Some shallow permafrost (max 30–70m depth) formed during the Holocene (past 5000 years) and some even during the Little Ice Age from 400–150 years ago. There are few extensive regions suitable for row crop agriculture in the permafrost zone. Additionally, in areas where large-scale agriculture has been conducted, ground destabilization has been common. Surface disturbance such as plowing or trampling of vegetation can alter the thermal regime of the soil, potentially triggering surface subsidence or abrupt collapse. This may influence soil hydrology, nutrient cycling, and organic matter storage. These changes often have acute and negative consequences for continued agricultural use of such landscapes. Thus, row-crop agriculture could have a negative impact on permafrost (e.g. Grünzweig et al., 2014). Conversely, animal husbandry is widespread in the permafrost zone, including horses, cattle, and reindeer

Deep Yedoma permafrost: A synthesis of depositional characteristics and carbon vulnerability

Permafrost is a distinct feature of the terrestrial Arctic and is vulnerable to climate warming. Permafrost degrades in different ways, including deepening of a seasonally unfrozen surface and localized but rapid development of deep thaw features. Pleistocene ice-rich permafrost with syngenetic ice-wedges, termed Yedoma deposits, are widespread in Siberia, Alaska, and Yukon, Canada and may be especially prone to rapid-thaw processes. Freeze-locked organic matter in such deposits can be re-mobilized on short time-scales and contribute to a carbon cycle climate feedback. Here we synthesize the characteristics and vulnerability of Yedoma deposits by synthesizing studies on the Yedoma origin and the associated organic carbon pool. We suggest that Yedoma deposits accumulated under periglacial weathering, transport, and deposition dynamics in non-glaciated regions during the late Pleistocene until the beginning of late glacial warming. The deposits formed due to a combination of aeolian, colluvial, nival, and alluvial deposition and simultaneous ground ice accumulation. We found up to 130 gigatons organic carbon in Yedoma, parts of which are well-preserved and available for fast decomposition after thaw. Based on incubation experiments, up to 10% of the Yedoma carbon is considered especially decomposable and may be released upon thaw. The substantial amount of ground ice in Yedoma makes it highly vulnerable to disturbances such as thermokarst and thermo-erosion processes. Mobilization of permafrost carbon is expected to increase under future climate warming. Our synthesis results underline the need of accounting for Yedoma carbon stocks in next generation Earth-System-Models for a more complete representation of the permafrost-carbon feedback

Long-term drainage reduces CO2 uptake and increases CO2 emission on a Siberian floodplain due to shifts in vegetation community and soil thermal characteristics

With increasing air temperatures and changing precipitation patterns forecast for the Arctic over the coming decades, the thawing of ice-rich permafrost is expected to increasingly alter hydrological conditions by creating mosaics of wetter and drier areas. The objective of this study is to investigate how 10 years of lowered water table depths of wet floodplain ecosystems would affect CO2 fluxes measured using a closed chamber system, focusing on the role of long-term changes in soil thermal characteristics and vegetation community structure. Drainage diminishes the heat capacity and thermal conductivity of organic soil, leading to warmer soil temperatures in shallow layers during the daytime and colder soil temperatures in deeper layers, resulting in a reduction in thaw depths. These soil temperature changes can intensify growing-season heterotrophic respiration by up to 95 %. With decreased autotrophic respiration due to reduced gross primary production under these dry conditions, the differences in ecosystem respiration rates in the present study were 25 %. We also found that a decade-long drainage installation significantly increased shrub abundance, while decreasing Eriophorum angustifolium abundance resulted in Carex sp. dominance. These two changes had opposing influences on gross primary production during the growing season: while the increased abundance of shrubs slightly increased gross primary production, the replacement of E. angustifolium by Carex sp. significantly decreased it. With the effects of ecosystem respiration and gross primary production combined, net CO2 uptake rates varied between the two years, which can be attributed to Carex-dominated plots' sensitivity to climate. However, underlying processes showed consistent patterns: 10 years of drainage increased soil temperatures in shallow layers and replaced E. angustifolium by Carex sp., which increased CO2 emission and reduced CO2 uptake rates. During the non-growing season, drainage resulted in 4 times more CO2 emissions, with high sporadic fluxes; these fluxes were induced by soil temperatures, E. angustifolium abundance, and air pressure.Peer reviewe

Lowering water table reduces carbon sink strength and carbon stocks in northern peatlands

Peatlands at high latitudes have accumulated \u3e400 Pg carbon (C) because saturated soil and cold temperatures suppress C decomposition. This substantial amount of C in Arctic and Boreal peatlands is potentially subject to increased decomposition if the water table (WT) decreases due to climate change, including permafrost thaw-related drying. Here, we optimize a version of the Organizing Carbon and Hydrology In Dynamic Ecosystems model (ORCHIDEE-PCH4) using site-specific observations to investigate changes in CO and CH fluxes as well as C stock responses to an experimentally manipulated decrease of WT at six northern peatlands. The unmanipulated control peatlands, with the WT (seasonal max up to 45 cm) below the surface, currently act as C sinks in most years (58 ± 34 g C m year ; including 6 ± 7 g C-CH m year emission). We found, however, that lowering the WT by 10 cm reduced the CO sink by 13 ± 15 g C m year and decreased CH emission by 4 ± 4 g CH m year , thus accumulating less C over 100 years (0.2 ± 0.2 kg C m ). Yet, the reduced emission of CH , which has a larger greenhouse warming potential, resulted in a net decrease in greenhouse gas balance by 310 ± 360 g CO m year . Peatlands with the initial WT close to the soil surface were more vulnerable to C loss: Non-permafrost peatlands lost \u3e2 kg C m over 100 years when WT is lowered by 50 cm, while permafrost peatlands temporally switched from C sinks to sources. These results highlight that reductions in C storage capacity in response to drying of northern peatlands are offset in part by reduced CH emissions, thus slightly reducing the positive carbon climate feedbacks of peatlands under a warmer and drier future climate scenario

Vulnerability of high latitude soil organic carbon in North America to disturbance

This synthesis addresses the vulnerability of the North American high-latitude soil organic carbon (SOC) pool to climate change. Disturbances caused by climate warming in arctic, subarctic, and boreal environments can result in significant redistribution of C among major reservoirs with potential global impacts. We divide the current northern high-latitude SOC pools into (1) near-surface soils where SOC is affected by seasonal freeze-thaw processes and changes in moisture status, and (2) deeper permafrost and peatland strata down to several tens of meters depth where SOC is usually not affected by short-term changes. We address key factors (permafrost, vegetation, hydrology, paleoenvironmental history) and processes (C input, storage, decomposition, and output) responsible for the formation of the large high-latitude SOC pool in North America and highlight how climate-related disturbances could alter this pool\u27s character and size. Press disturbances of relatively slow but persistent nature such as top-down thawing of permafrost, and changes in hydrology, microbiological communities, pedological processes, and vegetation types, as well as pulse disturbances of relatively rapid and local nature such as wildfires and thermokarst, could substantially impact SOC stocks. Ongoing climate warming in the North American high-latitude region could result in crossing environmental thresholds, thereby accelerating press disturbances and increasingly triggering pulse disturbances and eventually affecting the C source/sink net character of northern high-latitude soils. Finally, we assess postdisturbance feedbacks, models, and predictions for the northern high-latitude SOC pool, and discuss data and research gaps to be addressed by future research