Evaluation of the “Harmony Value”: A Sensory Method to Discriminate the Quality Range within the Category of EVOO

Besides a certain amount of relevant chemical parameters, objective quality of olive oil as well as consumer acceptance are depending mainly on its sensory characteristics. Referring to the EC Regulation 1833/2015, there exist different quality categories for olive oil, namely extra virgin, virgin and lampant. To belong to the category “extra virgin”olive oil (EVOO), an oil has to have a certain fruitiness (median > 0) and no defects (median = 0). This means that all olive oils without defect have the same quality level (extra virgin) no matter what kind of sensory characteristics they show. Within EVOOs, type and width of the parameter values of sensory descriptors show a broad variety. In order to mark differences between sensory characteristics in olive oil, the German and the Swiss Olive Oil Panel (DOP and SOP) further developed the panel test (according to EC regulation 1833/2015) by extending their profile sheet with additional sensory parameters, e.g. the “harmony”-value. The evaluation and interpretation of the “harmony” value of olive oils make it possible to monitor and thereby discriminate the sensory quality within the range of EVOOs on the market. This is important for all stakeholders in the olive oil business, aiming to produce, sell, provide and buy EVOOs at different price (and quality) levels

Development of biological plant protection methods, in particular the use of beneficials, in Baden-Wuerttemberg since 1979: a survey with new data from 2013 and 2014

Um die Fortschritte im biologischen Pflanzenschutz erfassen zu können, werden seit 35 Jahren insbesondere die Verfahren mit kommerziellem Nützlingseinsatz in verschiedenen Kulturbereichen in Baden-Württemberg ermittelt. Damit ist diese regionale Datenerhebung zum biologischen Pflanzenschutz die älteste und umfassendste in Deutschland. Die Umfrage erfolgt in der Regel alle zwei Jahre und wird an aktuelle Entwicklungen angepasst.1979 wurden zunächst nur die Schlupfwespe Encarsia formosa und die Raubmilbe Phytoseiulus persimilis ein­gesetzt. Die Einsatzflächen haben sich bei E. formosa von 3,0 ha (1979) auf 153,4 ha (2014) um das Fünfzigfache und bei P. persimilis von 1,4 ha (1979) auf 122,5 ha (2014) um das fast Neunzigfache erhöht. Seit den frühen 1990ern wurden weitere Nützlinge, darunter Florfliegen (2014: 28,0 ha), Ambylseius-Raubmilben (2014: 237,3 ha), nützliche Gallmücken (2014: 91,8 ha) und verschiedene Blattlausschlupfwespen (2014: 173,7 ha) kommerziell angeboten und ermöglichten vor allem in Gemüsekulturen unter Glas oder Folientunneln einen biologischen Pflanzenschutz zu fast 100%. Im Jahr 2014 betrug die Gesamtfläche mit Nützlingseinsatz (28 Arten) im geschützten Anbau in Baden-Württemberg 423 ha. Damit hat sich die Fläche in den letzten zehn Jahren mehr als verdoppelt. Der Nützlingseinsatz in Gemüsekulturen im Gewächshaus oder unter Folie (2014: 324,6 ha), inzwischen inkl. Erdbeeren und Kräutern, hat sich in den frühen 1990ern auf den Zierpflanzenanbau (2014: 64,4 ha) erweitert. In den letzten 15 Jahren spielt Freilandgemüse eine zunehmende Rolle (2014: 922,2 ha), sowie der Bereich Zier­gehölze und öffentliches Grün (2014: 83,2 ha). Hier kommen auch weitere nützliche Organismen wie Nematoden und Mikroorganismen zum Einsatz. Als neue Kategorie wurde in die aktuelle Umfrage der Bereich Beerenobst im geschützten Bereich (2014: 85,3 ha) mit überwiegendem Nützlingseinsatz aufgenommen.Der Einsatz von Nutzarthropoden wurde mit den Jahren erweitert um entomopathogene Nematoden (nütz­liche Fadenwürmer, 2014: 99 ha, z.B. Heterorhabditis sp., Steinernema sp.), nützliche Mikroorganismen (2014: 880 ha), darunter zur Schädlingsbekämpfung (2014: 169 ha, z.B. Bacillus thuringiensis) sowie Bodenhilfsstoffe (2014: 593 ha, z.B. Bacillus amyloliquefaciens), sowie nützliche Pilze (2014: 104 ha, z.B. Conithyrium minitans). Im Obstbau sind insbesondere das Apfelwickler-Granu­losevirus (2014: 640 ha), sowie die biotechnische Pheromonverwirrung (2014: 536 ha), die auch im Weinbau eingesetzt wird, von Bedeutung. Weitere, nicht direkt durch die Umfrage erfasste Bereiche mit Nützlingsanwendung sind der Einsatz von Trichogramma-Schlupfwespen gegen den Maiszünsler seit über 30 Jahren auf inzwischen etwa 20.000 ha. Verschiedene Trichogramma-Arten werden auch im Obstbau (Apfel, Pflaume), aber vor allem im Hausgartenbereich gegen Wickler angeboten. Ein neuer Anwendungsbereich, der sich über die Jahre entwickelt hat, ist der Nützlingseinsatz im Vorratsschutz, sowohl im Getreidelager als Nachernteschutz gegen Motten und Käfer und in der Schädlingsbekämpfung im Haushalt, z.B. gegen Lebensmittelmotten.Die Auswertung der Umfragen zeigt eine deutliche Entwicklung in der Steigerung der Flächenanteile, der Erschließung neuer Anwendungsbereiche mit Nützlings­einsatz und einer immer breiteren Vielfalt an Nutzarthropoden- und Mikroorganismen-Arten für biologische Verfahren. Inzwischen gibt es im Pflanzenbau keinen Kulturbereich mehr ohne biologische Bekämpfungsverfahren mit nützlichen Organismen.In order to monitor the progress of biological plant protection, surveys have been conducted every 2 years in the State of Baden-Wuerttemberg, Germany during the last 35 years. This survey is the oldest and most comprehensive regional survey of this kind in Germany and focuses in particular on the use of beneficial arthropods.In 1979, mainly the parasitic wasp Encarsia formosa and the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis were applied. For E. formosa, the treated area has increased fifty times from 3.0 ha in 1979 to 153.4 ha in 2014 and almost ninety times for P. persimilis from 1.4 ha (1979) to 122,5 ha (2014). Since the early 1990 s, additional beneficial orga­nisms, including lacewings (2014: 28.0 ha), Ambylseius predatory mites (2014: 237.3 ha), beneficial gall midges (2014: 91.8 ha) and various aphid parasitoids (2014: 173.7 ha) were available and made it possible to apply almost exclusively biological crop protection in cultures like vegetable crops under glass or in plastic tunnels. During 2014, 28 species of beneficials were used in the greenhouses of Baden-Württemberg and the total treated area had increased to 423 ha. This means, the treated area has more than doubled during the last decade. The use of beneficials in greenhouse vegetables, strawberries and herbs (2014: 324.6 ha) expanded in the early 1990 s to ornamental plants (2014: 64.4 ha). Additional beneficials like nematodes and microorganisms have been used during the last 15 years in outdoor vegetables (2014: 922.2 ha) and ornamentals (2014: 83.2 ha). A new category was added during the current survey, greenhouse berry fruits (2014: 85.3 ha), where predominantly beneficial arthropods are used.Over the years, the types of beneficials used has also expanded and covers now, apart from beneficial arthropods, entomopathogenic nematodes like Heterorhabditis and Steinernema species (2014: 99 ha) as well as bene­ficial microorganisms (2014: 880 ha) which includes those used for pest control (2014: 169 ha, e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis), as soil conditioners (2014: 593 ha, e.g. Bacillus amyloliquefaciens), and beneficial fungi (2014: 104 ha, e.g. Conithyrium minitans). In orchards, the most important biocontrol methods are the use of a granulo­virus against the codling moth (2014: 640 ha) and the application of pheromones for mating disruption (2014: 536 ha), similar to the use in vineyards. An additional area of biological control which was not directly covered by the survey is the use of parasitic Trichogramma wasps against the European corn borer which has expanded during the last 30 years to about 20,000 ha. Various Trichogramma species are also available for apples and plums, mainly in home gardens against tortricid pests. Further, biological control methods have been developed over the years for applying beneficial insects in stored products, both in post-harvest grain storage against moths and beetles as well as in pest control in households, for example, against food moths.The analysis of the survey results shows a significant increase in the area treated with beneficial organisms, the use in a larger variety of cultures and a wider variety of benefical arthropods and microorganisms applied. Currently, there is no area of plant cultivation without biocontrol methods

Aroma characterisation of Pu-Erh teas

Pu-Erh tea is used in China as a health drink and is known in Chinese medicine for stimulating the metabolism and strengthening the immune system 1. To produce Pu-Erh Tea, the dried leaves of Camelia sinensis are pressed and fermented by microorganisms 2. The aroma composition of Pu-Erh teas was already analysed by Gas Chromatography-Olfactometry/Mass Spectrometry (GC-O/MS) in combination with Solid Phase Micro Extraction SPME 3, 4. However, dilution to odour threshold techniques such as aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA), as applied for the aroma characterisation of black and green tea infusions 5, have not been performed till now in order to investigate the key molecules responsible for the Pu-Erh tea aroma. The aim of this investigation was to identify the key odorants in the infusions of two Pu-Erh tea varieties, namely Shu and Sheng. For this reason, SAFE distillates of the Pu-Erh tea infusions were prepared and analysed afterwards by GC-O/MS in combination with AEDA. The results of this study clearly showed differences in the aroma profiles of the two investigated Pu-Erh teas on molecular level

Alpine ecology, plant biodiversity and photosynthetic performance of marker plants in a nitrogen gradient induced by Alnus bushes

Background Alpine alder vegetation acts upon the nearby grass and dwarf shrub vegetation by the nitrogen supply from the symbiotic bacteria Frankia alni of Alnus viridis. This has been studied in two transects concerning plant distribution, plant diversity, nitrate concentration in soil and photosynthetic performance of specific marker plants. Results Away from the alder stand, a band of some meters was dominated by Calamagrostis varia which then was followed by alpine dwarf shrub vegetation. Nitrate in the soil showed a concentration decrease away from the alder stand leading to values near the detection limit in the dwarf shrub zone. Within these three zones, plant species were distributed according to their N-index, given in the ecological literature. Three dominant species, Calamagrostis varia, Rhododendron ferrugineum and Vaccinium myrtillus were examined at sites of different N-availability in the horizontal transect for their photosynthetic performance, by measuring the prompt fluorescence, the OJIP named polyphasic rise of chlorophyll-a fluorescence. All three plant species showed signs of stress in the fluorescence rise kinetics at decreased nitrate availability. These are similar to other known stress effects such as faster reduction of the primary acceptor or an electron supply limitation on the donor site of photosystem II. Conclusion Prompt chlorophyll-a fluorescence data of the examined leaves in a natural vegetation system showed the effects of a decrease in the essential nutrient nitrogen and in a manner parallel to changes in plant diversity. The selected marker plants behaved differently towards decreasing nitrogen concentrations in soil. Background Nitrogen is one of the main nutrients for plant growth and is considered to be the limiting factor for net primary production in terrestrial ecosystems [34, 35]. For high productivity in agriculture, nitrogen is supplied as fertilizer in the form of nitrate or ammonium. In natural pristine environments nitrogen fixing bacteria, free living or as root symbionts, provide bound nitrogen in nitrogen-poor soil. In the alpine shrub and grass zones the concentration of available nitrogen is often low; although various nitrogen compounds may be imported through the atmosphere by wind or rain. Alnus viridis is an important component of the tall shrub vegetation in the subalpine and alpine areas. Due to root symbiosis with the nitrogen-fixing Actinobacterium Frankia alni, the soil at these sites is enriched in plant-available nitrogen and a remarkable accumulation of biomass may be seen nearby. This suggests the presence of a nitrogen flow away from the alder zone into the neighboring grass and shrub zones. Thus, a clear change in plant composition and diversity away from the border of the Alnus tall forbs is often observed even with the naked eye

The diversity of ferns and lycopods in Val Piora and measurements of ecological and physiological indicators on two widely distributed fern species at two different sites

The diversity of ferns and lycopods, their lifeforms and the environmental performance were studied near Lake Cadagno in the Piora valley. For easier determination of the local diversity, a key to the species found in the area is given. Fast chlorophyll fluorescence is a valuable tool to check the photosynthetic plant performance as a measure for adaptation to local environmental conditions. As tropical ferns react strongly to a varying light regime, two local species, Athyrium distentifolium and Dryopteris dilatata, were selected, both growing at sunny drier as well as shaded more humid sites, to measure the kinetics if their chlorophyll fluorescence rise after a a strong light pulse. Although the ecological indicators (Landolt et al. 2010) of both species are similarly characterized as humid and shadow, leaves of the two species after exposed to the sun or in the shadow behave differently upon a strong artificial light pulse

Drought stress, water table and photosynthetic activity of peat moss measured by fast fluorescence in alpine peatlands

Alpine peatlands are highly vulnerable ecosystems worldwide and are endangered by global warming. Peat moss metabolism and growth are governed by rainfall and the level of the water table in the moor. In a protected alpine peatland three sites with different distances from the open water and the water table were chosen to evaluate higher plant diversity and to determine the photosynthetic performance of some plants and of the peat moss layer (mainly Sphagnum sp.) at these sites using fast fluorescence kinetics (OJIP-test). The photosynthetic activity of peat moss decreased with greater distance from the water level. In contrast, photosynthesis of Carex was impeded at higher water levels. In the context of global warming, if increasing temperature and stronger winds dry the peat moss cover, the differences in observed stress response by a changing water table, we expect that higher plants will overgrow the peatmoss site, a phenomenon already partially observed in recent decades

Alpine ecology, plant biodiversity and photosynthetic performance of marker plants in a nitrogen gradient induced by Alnus bushes

Abstract Background Alpine alder vegetation acts upon the nearby grass and dwarf shrub vegetation by the nitrogen supply from the symbiotic bacteria Frankia alni of Alnus viridis. This has been studied in two transects concerning plant distribution, plant diversity, nitrate concentration in soil and photosynthetic performance of specific marker plants. Results Away from the alder stand, a band of some meters was dominated by Calamagrostis varia which then was followed by alpine dwarf shrub vegetation. Nitrate in the soil showed a concentration decrease away from the alder stand leading to values near the detection limit in the dwarf shrub zone. Within these three zones, plant species were distributed according to their N-index, given in the ecological literature. Three dominant species, Calamagrostis varia, Rhododendron ferrugineum and Vaccinium myrtillus were examined at sites of different N-availability in the horizontal transect for their photosynthetic performance, by measuring the prompt fluorescence, the OJIP named polyphasic rise of chlorophyll-a fluorescence. All three plant species showed signs of stress in the fluorescence rise kinetics at decreased nitrate availability. These are similar to other known stress effects such as faster reduction of the primary acceptor or an electron supply limitation on the donor site of photosystem II. Conclusion Prompt chlorophyll-a fluorescence data of the examined leaves in a natural vegetation system showed the effects of a decrease in the essential nutrient nitrogen and in a manner parallel to changes in plant diversity. The selected marker plants behaved differently towards decreasing nitrogen concentrations in soil