Contextual Conditions for Acculturation and Adjustment of Adolescent Immigrants – Integrating Theory and Findings

In this paper we review the literature on contextual conditions related to the school, the family, and ethnic or immigrant-group membership, and their association with adjustment outcomes of adolescent immigrants in Europe. Drawing on theories in the areas of acculturation and development, the first aim was to develop a conceptual framework, which integrates acculturative and developmental processes in early adolescence and can guide the literature review in this area. The second aim was to identify the most important conditions for adolescent immigrants’ acculturation and adjustment outcomes in school and the family, and related to immigrant-group membership

Characteristics of the Country of Origin and Immigrant Children’s Psychological and Sociocultural School Adjustment

In many Western countries, immigrant children lag behind their native peers in educational attainment, yet there appear to be systematic differences between immigrant groups. We set out to examine (1) if these differential outcomes can be linked to group specific acculturation patterns, following similar processes to those observed at individual level; and (2) to what extent characteristics of the country of origin could help to explain differences in the acculturation process and school adjustment of immigrant children in Germany. In particular, we investigated country-level relationships between children’s acculturation conditions (e.g., perceived parental acculturation expectations and cultural practices in the family), orientations (ethnic and mainstream), and school-related outcomes (psychological and sociocultural) as well as how these in turn are related to characteristics of the countries of origin (e.g. cultural values, level of development and religious composition). Country-level analyses were based on a diverse sample of 695 second- and third-generation immigrant children from more than 50 different countries in Germany. (1) Our results confirm that country-level relationships between different components of the acculturation process are very similar to what has been found at individual level. (2) We found some relationships between characteristics of the country of origin and acculturation conditions, yet, the relationships with children’s acculturation orientations and outcomes were much weaker. These findings suggest that (1) there appear to be immigrant group-specific acculturation patterns which can explain differences in school adjustment and (2) characteristics of the country of origin only play a minor role in immigrant children’s school adjustment

Does Tolerance Reflect a More Inclusive Self-Construal? A Comparison of Poland, East and West Germany

Past research suggests that Poland and Germany differ in the inclusiveness of their “moral universe”, i.e. the breadth of the community to which people apply moral values and rules of fairness (Schwartz, 2007). It seems likely that this difference is reflected in a more or less inclusive definition of one’s ingroup. The present study investigated (1) whether there are indeed differences in ingroup inclusiveness as manifested in differential construals of the self in East and West Germany and Poland and (2) whether those differences are reflected in differences in tolerance. As expected, participants in West Germany had the most inclusive self-construal, followed by participants from East Germany and then Poland – both in terms of their absolute scores on the most inclusive level (being a member of humanity), and in terms of the relative importance of the different levels. A relationship between a more inclusive self-construal and tolerance was observed in West Germany, but not in East Germany and Poland. The results suggest that more inclusive and abstract levels of the self-construal are more closely linked to other abstract constructs such as values rather than a true reflection of people’s ingroup. In countries with a communist past where universal values or the concern for humanity at large have been used for ideological purposes, these values may have lost their original meaning and psychological significance, and are less linked to intergroup attitudes such as tolerance towards immigrants

Who is Friends with Whom? Patterns of Inter- and Intraethnic Friendships of Mainstream and Immigrant Early Adolescents in Germany

Multiethnic schools provide opportunities for interethnic contact and the development of positive interethnic relations. Yet, some children develop such relations more easily than others. In the present study, we were interested in patterns of inter- and intraethnic friendships and the relative likeability of certain ethnic groups in ethnically heterogeneous schools. The sample comprised 842 early adolescents (Mage = 11.50 years, SDage = .71; 53% male) from 64 countries of origin who attend multiethnic schools in Southwest Germany. In line with our expectations, interethnic friendships are to a large extent formed on the basis of cultural distance, with more friendships occurring between groups that are culturally more similar. Further, the likeability of children from different ethnic groups follows the so-called ethnic hierarchy, a rank order of different ethnic groups, which is based on perceived similarity with the mainstream group. Interventions to improve early adolescents’ interethnic friendships should aim to reduce perceptions of cultural distance and ethnic hierarchies in intergroup settings

Conditions for cultural belonging among youth of immigrant descent in Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom: Comparative analysis of intergroup experiences and classroom contexts

Intergroup contexts of classrooms have an influence on mainstream and ethnic belonging of youth of immigrant descent. Based on the normative reference group theory, a higher level of ethic identification is expected in classrooms with a higher proportion of co-ethnic youth and, based on constrict theory, a lower level of mainstream identification is expected in ethnically more diverse classrooms. However, these relations between ethnic composition and cultural belonging may differ between countries due to differences in multicultural policies and colonial histories. Using two waves of data from CILS4EU survey, we conduct a cross-national comparison of the relation between intergroup contexts of classrooms and cultural belonging. The results imply that both theories cannot be generalized across national contexts, and other factors vary as well across countries. Therefore, research and policy in this area should pay more attention to the national context in terms of policies and histories

Acculturation and School Adjustment of Early-Adolescent Immigrant Boys and Girls in Germany: Conditions in School, Family, and Ethnic Group

Navigating between cultures in addition to developmental changes and challenges in early adolescence can be difficult. We investigated school, family, and ethnic group as conditions for acculturation and school adjustment among early-adolescent boys and girls. Analyses were based on 860 mostly second- and third-generation immigrant students from 71 countries (50% male; M-age = 11.59 years), attending German secondary schools. Perceived support for inclusion and integration in school and family were associated with a stronger orientation toward both cultures (integration) and better adjustment (e.g., higher school marks, more well-being). Perceived cultural distance and ethnic discrimination were associated with a stronger ethnic and weaker mainstream orientation (separation), and lower adjustment. Boys perceived contextual conditions more negatively, had a weaker mainstream orientation, and showed more behavioral problems but did not differ from girls in the associations between contextual conditions and acculturation and adjustment. Implications for research, policy, and practice are discussed

“When birds of a different feather flock together” – intercultural socialization in adolescents’ friendships

Intercultural friendships are a powerful form of intergroup contact to reduce prejudice (Pettigrew, 1998). Little is known about if and how intercultural friendships may also foster intercultural competence. An important prerequisite for the development of intercultural competence is that adolescents reflect on cultural variations. We refer to the degree to which adolescents discuss cultural variations in intercultural friendships as intercultural socialization and explore the following research questions: (1) Does intercultural socialization in friendships mediate the relation between age, intercultural friendship characteristics (friendship group composition, and length, quality, and interaction frequency of the closest intercultural friendship), and adolescents’ intercultural competence? (2) Do these relations depend on the adolescents’ self-identification with majority and minority culture(s)? The sample included 571 adolescents in Germany (48% female, M = 13.69 years, 52% identifying only as members of the cultural majority, 48% (also) as members of a cultural minority. Intercultural competence was measured using a self-report questionnaire and open-ended questions capturing the adolescents’ interpretation of and reaction to intercultural situations. Quantitative measures tapped into friendship characteristics (friendship group composition, and length, quality, and interaction frequency of the closest intercultural friendship). To test our model, we employed multigroup path analysis with latent variables in Mplus. Results showed that intercultural socialization linked age and intercultural friendship characteristics with adolescents’ intercultural competence. The relations partly varied depending on student's cultural self-identification. We conclude that intercultural friendships are associated with important skills that are needed in increasingly multicultural societies if students experience and discuss cultural variations in these friendships

“When birds of a different feather flock together” – intercultural socialization in adolescents’ friendships

Intercultural friendships are a powerful form of intergroup contact to reduce prejudice (Pettigrew, 1998). Little is known about if and how intercultural friendships may also foster intercultural competence. An important prerequisite for the development of intercultural competence is that adolescents reflect on cultural variations. We refer to the degree to which adolescents discuss cultural variations in intercultural friendships as intercultural socialization and explore the following research questions: (1) Does intercultural socialization in friendships mediate the relation between age, intercultural friendship characteristics (friendship group composition, and length, quality, and interaction frequency of the closest intercultural friendship), and adolescents’ intercultural competence? (2) Do these relations depend on the adolescents’ self-identification with majority and minority culture(s)? The sample included 571 adolescents in Germany (48% female, Mage = 13.69 years, 52% identifying only as members of the cultural majority, 48% (also) as members of a cultural minority. Intercultural competence was measured using a self-report questionnaire and open-ended questions capturing the adolescents’ interpretation of and reaction to intercultural situations. Quantitative measures tapped into friendship characteristics (friendship group composition, and length, quality, and interaction frequency of the closest intercultural friendship). To test our model, we employed multigroup path analysis with latent variables in Mplus. Results showed that intercultural socialization linked age and intercultural friendship characteristics with adolescents’ intercultural competence. The relations partly varied depending on student’s cultural self-identification. We conclude that intercultural friendships are associated with important skills that are needed in increasingly multicultural societies if students experience and discuss cultural variations in these friendships

Reaping the benefits of cultural diversity: Classroom cultural diversity climate and students’ intercultural competence

Culturally diverse schools may constitute natural arenas for training crucial intercultural skills. We hypothesized that a classroom cultural diversity climate fostering contact and cooperation and multiculturalism, but not a climate fostering color-evasion, would be positively related to adolescents’ intercultural competence. Adolescents in North Rhine-Westphalia (N = 631, Mage = 13.69 years, 49% of immigrant background) and Berlin (N = 1,335, Mage = 14.69 years, 52% of immigrant background) in Germany reported their perceptions of the classroom cultural diversity climate and completed quantitative and qualitative measures assessing their intercultural competence. Multilevel structural equation models indicate that contact and cooperation, multiculturalism, and, surprisingly, also color-evasion (as in emphasizing a common humanity), were positively related to the intercultural competence of immigrant and non-immigrant background students. We conclude that all three aspects of the classroom climate are uniquely related to aspects of adolescents’ intercultural competence and that none of them may be sufficient on their own

Acculturation and school adjustment of immigrant youth in six European countries: findings from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)

School adjustment determines long-term adjustment in society. Yet, immigrant youth do better in some countries than in others. Drawing on acculturation research (Berry, 1997; Ward, 2001) and self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000), we investigated indirect effects of adolescent immigrants' acculturation orientations on school adjustment (school-related attitudes, truancy, and mathematics achievement) through school belonging. Analyses were based on data from the Programme for International Student Assessment from six European countries, which were combined into three clusters based on their migrant integration and multicultural policies: Those with the most supportive policies (Belgium and Finland), those with moderately supportive policies (Italy and Portugal), and those with the most unsupportive policies (Denmark and Slovenia). In a multigroup path model, we confirmed most associations. As expected, mainstream orientation predicted higher belonging and better outcomes in all clusters, whereas the added value of students' ethnic orientation was only observed in some clusters. Results are discussed in terms of differences in acculturative climate and policies between countries of settlement