Chemotherapeutics Used for High-Risk Neuroblastoma Therapy Improve the Efficacy of Anti-GD2 Antibody Dinutuximab Beta in Preclinical Spheroid Models

Anti-disialoganglioside GD2 antibody ch14.18/CHO (dinutuximab beta, DB) improved the outcome of patients with high-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) in the maintenance phase. We investigated chemotherapeutic compounds used in newly diagnosed patients in combination with DB. Vincristine, etoposide, carboplatin, cisplatin, and cyclophosphamide, as well as DB, were used at concentrations achieved in pediatric clinical trials. The effects on stress ligand and checkpoint expression by neuroblastoma cells and on activation receptors of NK cells were determined by using flow cytometry. NK-cell activity was measured with a CD107a/IFN-γ assay. Long-term cytotoxicity was analyzed in three spheroid models derived from GD2-positive neuroblastoma cell lines (LAN-1, CHLA 20, and CHLA 136) expressing a fluorescent near-infrared protein. Chemotherapeutics combined with DB in the presence of immune cells improved cytotoxic efficacy up to 17-fold compared to in the controls, and the effect was GD2-specific. The activating stress and inhibitory checkpoint ligands on neuroblastoma cells were upregulated by the chemotherapeutics up to 9- and 5-fold, respectively, and activation receptors on NK cells were not affected. The CD107a/IFN-γ assay revealed no additional activation of NK cells by the chemotherapeutics. The synergistic effect of DB with chemotherapeutics seems primarily attributed to the combined toxicity of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and chemotherapy, which supports further clinical evaluation in frontline induction therapy

Chemotherapeutics Used for High-Risk Neuroblastoma Therapy Improve the Efficacy of Anti-GD2 Antibody Dinutuximab Beta in Preclinical Spheroid Models

Anti-disialoganglioside GD2 antibody ch14.18/CHO (dinutuximab beta, DB) improved the outcome of patients with high-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) in the maintenance phase. We investigated chemotherapeutic compounds used in newly diagnosed patients in combination with DB. Vincristine, etoposide, carboplatin, cisplatin, and cyclophosphamide, as well as DB, were used at concentrations achieved in pediatric clinical trials. The effects on stress ligand and checkpoint expression by neuroblastoma cells and on activation receptors of NK cells were determined by using flow cytometry. NK-cell activity was measured with a CD107a/IFN-γ assay. Long-term cytotoxicity was analyzed in three spheroid models derived from GD2-positive neuroblastoma cell lines (LAN-1, CHLA 20, and CHLA 136) expressing a fluorescent near-infrared protein. Chemotherapeutics combined with DB in the presence of immune cells improved cytotoxic efficacy up to 17-fold compared to in the controls, and the effect was GD2-specific. The activating stress and inhibitory checkpoint ligands on neuroblastoma cells were upregulated by the chemotherapeutics up to 9- and 5-fold, respectively, and activation receptors on NK cells were not affected. The CD107a/IFN-γ assay revealed no additional activation of NK cells by the chemotherapeutics. The synergistic effect of DB with chemotherapeutics seems primarily attributed to the combined toxicity of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and chemotherapy, which supports further clinical evaluation in frontline induction therapy

Immunmodulatorische und genetische Parameter als prognostische Marker für das Ansprechen einer GD2-gerichteten Immuntherapie in Kombination mit Interleukin-2 bei Patienten mit Hochrisikoneuroblastom

Das Neuroblastom ist eine pädiatrische Tumorerkrankung, die ihren Ursprung in undifferenzierten Nervenzellen des sympathischen Nervengewebes hat. Das ereignisfreie 5-Jahresüberleben von Hochrisikopatienten liegt trotz der Einführung neuer gegen das Disialogangliosid GD2-gerichteter Antikörpertherapien weiterhin nur bei ca. 50 %. Daher ist es wichtig, die Biomarker zu finden, die helfen, Patienten zu identifizieren, die bisher noch nicht von den etablierten Therapieansätzen profitieren. In dieser Arbeit wurden immunologische und genetische Parameter untersucht, die möglicherweise als Biomarker für das Ansprechen auf eine GD2-gerichtete Immuntherapie in Kombination mit Interleukin 2 (IL-2) dienen können. Dafür wurde der Einfluss der zytotoxischen NK-Zellen, Granulozyten (Eosinophile und Neutrophile) und regulatorischen T-Zellen (Treg) sowie der Zytokine IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-10, IL-18 und CCL2 auf die antikörperabhängige zelluläre Zytotoxizität (antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, ADCC) und dem ereignisfreien Überleben analysiert. Weiterhin wurde die Rolle von patientenspezifischen FCGR2A-H131R und 3A-V158F-Polymorphismen sowie die Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) und KIR-Liganden (KIRL)-Genotypen bei einer Immuntherapie evaluiert. 53 Patienten haben bis zu fünf Zyklen Immuntherapie erhalten. Ein Zyklus beeinhaltete zunächst fünf Tage 6×106 IU/m2/Tag IL-2-Behandlung (Tage 1 - 5), gefolgt von einer Langzeitinfusion von dem anti-GD2-Antikörper ch14.18/CHO (Tage 8 - 18) in Kombination mit 6×106IU/m2/Tag IL-2 (Tage 8 – 12). Die Zahl der Effektorzellen und die Zytokinserumkonzentrationen wurden mittels Durchflusszytometrie ermittelt und die FCGR-Polymorphismen und KIR/KIRL-Genotyp mit einer validierten Real-Time-PCR bestimmt. Die ADCC wurde mittels eines Calcein-AM basierten Zytotoxizitätstest erfasst. Die IL-2-Monotherapie an den Tagen 1-5 steigerte die Zahl der NK-Zellen, der Treg und der Eosinophilen stark im Vergleich zum Basiswert (Zyklus 1, Tag 1). Die Expansion der Neutrophilen wurde hingegen erst nach dem Start der Antikörperbehandlung beobachtet (Tag 15). IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-10, IL-18 und CCL2 erreichten ihre Spitzenkonzentrationen ebenfalls erst während der Antikörpertherapie. Überraschenderweise korrelierte weder die NK-Zell- noch die Granulozytenzahl mit der ADCC und dem ereignisfreien Überleben der Patienten. Hingegen zeigten Patienten mit einer starken Expansion der Treg signifikant niedrigere IFN-γ-Serumkonzentrationen sowie ein schlechteres ereignisfreies Überleben im Vergleich zu Patienten mit niedriger Treg-Zahl. Außerdem hatten Patienten mit hoher IL-18-Serumkonzentration währender der Antikörpertherapie ein signifikant verbessertes Überleben verglichen mit Patienten mit niedriger IL-18-Serumkonzentration. Zusammenfassend wurde eine starke Induktion der Treg beobachtet, die invers mit der IFN-γ-Serumkonzentration und dem ereignisfreien Überleben der Patienten korrelierte. Die Patienten mit den hochaffinen FCGR2A-131H- und 3A-158V-Polymorphismen zeigten einen höhere ADCC und ein verlängertes ereignisfreies Überleben gegenüber den Patienten mit den FCGR2A-131R- und 3A-158F-Polymorphismen. Patienten mit aktivierenden KIR (Genotyp B/x), insbesondere dem KIR2DS2, zeigten eine gesteigerte ADCC und ein verlängertes ereignisfreies Überleben verglichen mit den Patienten mit dem inhibitorischen KIR-Genotyp ohne aktivierende KIR (Genotyp A/A). Entsprechend hatten Patienten mit dem vorteilhaften KIR2DS2 und hochaffinen FCGR-Polymorphismen die stärkste Induktion der ADCC und das längste ereignisfreie Überleben im Vergleich zu Patienten mit inhibitorischen KIR-Genotyp und niedrigaffinen FCGR-Polymorphismen. In dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass KIR- und FCGR2A- und 3A-Genotypen die ADCC sowie das Ansprechen auf eine ch14.18/CHO-basierte Immuntherapie in Kombination mit IL-2 beeinflussen und daher in Zukunft als Biomarker für diese Therapie dienen können. Schließlich erwiesen sich FCGR-Polymorphismen in Kombination mit der Treg-Zahl als Biomarker zur Identifizierung von Patienten, die kein Ansprechen auf die Immuntherapie gezeigt hat. Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass immunologische und genetische Parameter als prädiktive Biomarker einer antikörperbasierten Immuntherapie bei Patienten mit Hochrisikoneuroblastom verwendet werden können, um Patienten zu identifizieren, die von der bisherigen Immuntherapie nicht profitieren würden. Für solche Patienten müssen alternative Therapieoptionen angeboten werden um einen schnellen Rückfall der Erkrankung zu verhindern.Neuroblastoma is a malignant disease originated from primordial neural crest cells. Despite the introduction of anti-GD2-based immunotherapies, the 5-year event-free survival of high-risk Neuroblastoma patients is still about 50%. Therefore, it is important to find biomarkers allowing to identify patients that still do not benefit from the current treatment modalities. The following potential immunological and genetic biomarkers were investigated in patients who received an anti-GD2 treatment in combination with Interleukin 2 (IL-2) were: Cytotoxic NK-, granulocytes- (neutrophils and eosinophils) and regulatory T cell (Treg) as well as the cytokines IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-10, IL-18 and CCL2. Moreover, FCGR2A-H131R and 3A-V158F-polymorphisms as well as killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) und KIR-ligands (KIRL) genotypes, that have been shown to impact the outcome of immunotherapies, were evaluated. Correlation between all parameters and the antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and the event-free survival was statistically analyzed. 53 patients received up to five cycles immunotherapy with 6×106 IU/m2 subcutaneous IL-2 prior to and in combination with (days 1-5 and 8–12, respectively) the long-term infusion (LTI) of 100 mg/m2 anti-GD2-antibody ch14.18/CHO (days 8-18). Effector cell counts and cytokine serum concentrations were assessed by flow cytometry. FCGR polymorphism and KIR/KIRL genotypes were determined by real-time PCR and ADDC was analyzed by calcein-AM-based cytotoxicity assay Administration of IL-2 (days 1-5) resulted in increased cytotoxic NK cell-, eosinophil- and Treg numbers, whereas neutrophils were elevated after the start of the antibody LTI. Similarly, peak serum concentrations of IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-10, IL-18 and CCL2 were observed only during the combined treatment with ch14.18/CHO and IL-2. Surprisingly, we did not find any impact of therapy-related NK-cell- and granulocyte counts on ADCC and event-free survival. However, patients with high Treg counts showed low IFN-γ serum concentration and poor event-free survival probabilities compared to those patients with low Treg. Interestingly, patients with high IL-18 levels, that were detected during the Ab-treatment, showed significantly improved survival compared to those patients with low IL-18. In summary, we observed an Il-2-dependent induction of Treg that inversely correlated with IFN-γ serum concentration and event-free survival. Next, patients with high-affinity FCGR2A-131H and 3A-158F polymorphisms showed a stronger induction of ADCC compared to those who had low-affinity FCGR. These results translated into improved event-free survival probabilities of high-affinity patients compared to the low-affinity cohort. Similarly, patients with the activating KIR-genotype B/B, particularly, when KIR2DS2 was present, showed higher ADCC levels and improved event-free survival compared to those patients with the inhibitory KIR-genotype A/A. Accordingly, the highest ADCC and longest event-free survival were observed in patients when the presence of KIR2DS2 and high-affinity FCGR2A- and 3A were combined. In summary, FCGR polymorphisms and the presence of KIR2DS2 showed a major effect on ADCC and event-free survival and therefore might present biomarker to predict the outcome of a GD2-directed immunotherapy. Finally, we identified patients with particularly poor outcome, when FCGR-polymorphisms and Treg-counts were combined. In conclusion, immunological and genetic parameters can be used as predictive biomarkers of an anti-GD2 immunotherapy in patients with high-risk neuroblastoma. For patients that still not benefit from this therapy, alternative treatment options should be considered to prevent early relapse

Co-expression of IL-15 enhances anti-neuroblastoma effectivity of a tyrosine hydroxylase-directed DNA vaccination in mice.

Long-term survival of high-risk neuroblastoma (NB) patients still remains under 50%. Here, we report the generation, in vitro characterization and anti-tumor effectivity of a new bicistronic xenogenic DNA vaccine encoding tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) that is highly expressed in NB tumors, and the immune stimulating cytokine interleukin 15 (IL-15) that induces cytotoxic but not regulatory T cells. The DNA sequences of TH linked to ubiquitin and of IL-15 were integrated into the bicistronic expression vector pIRES. Successful production and bioactivity of the vaccine-derived IL-15- and TH protein were shown by ELISA, bioactivity assay and western blot analysis. Further, DNA vaccine-driven gene transfer to the antigen presenting cells of Peyer's patches using attenuated Salmonella typhimurium that served as oral delivery system was shown by immunofluorescence analysis. The anti-tumor effect of the generated vaccine was evaluated in a syngeneic mouse model (A/J mice, n = 12) after immunization with S. typhimurium (3× prior and 3× after tumor implantation). Importantly, TH-/IL-15-based DNA vaccination resulted in an enhanced tumor remission in 45.5% of mice compared to controls (TH (16.7%), IL-15 (0%)) and reduced spontaneous metastasis (30.0%) compared to controls (TH (63.6%), IL-15 (70.0%)). Interestingly, similar levels of tumor infiltrating CD8+ T cells were observed among all experimental groups. Finally, co-expression of IL-15 did not result in elevated regulatory T cell levels in tumor environment measured by flow cytometry. In conclusion, co-expression of the stimulatory cytokine IL-15 enhanced the NB-specific anti-tumor effectivity of a TH-directed vaccination in mice and may provide a novel immunological approach for NB patients

The Immunocytokine FAP-IL-2v Enhances Anti-Neuroblastoma Efficacy of the Anti-GD2 Antibody Dinutuximab Beta

Treatment of high-risk neuroblastoma (NB) patients with the anti-GD2 antibody (Ab) dinutuximab beta (DB) improves survival by 15%. Ab-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) is the major mechanism of action and is primarily mediated by NK cells. Since IL-2 co-treatment did not show a therapeutic benefit but strongly induced Treg, we investigated here a DB-based immunotherapy combined with the immunocytokine FAP-IL-2v, which comprises a fibroblast activation protein α (FAP)-specific Ab linked to a mutated IL-2 variant (IL-2v) with abolished binding to the high-affinity IL-2 receptor, thus stimulating NK cells without induction of Treg. Effects of FAP-IL-2v on NK cells, Treg and ADCC mediated by DB, as well as FAP expression in NB, were investigated by flow cytometry, calcein-AM-based cytotoxicity assay and RT-PCR analysis. Moreover, the impact of soluble factors released from tumor cells on FAP expression by primary fibroblasts was assessed. Finally, a combined immunotherapy with DB and FAP-IL-2v was evaluated using a resistant syngeneic murine NB model. Incubation of leukocytes with FAP-IL-2v enhanced DB-specific ADCC without induction of Treg. FAP expression on NB cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDCS) in tumor tissue was identified. A tumor-cell-dependent enhancement in FAP expression by primary fibroblasts was demonstrated. Combination with DB and FAP-IL-2v resulted in reduced tumor growth and improved survival. Analysis of tumor tissue revealed increased NK and cytotoxic T cell numbers and reduced Treg compared to controls. Our data show that FAP-IL-2v is a potent immunocytokine that augments the efficacy of DB against NB, providing a promising alternative to IL-2

Impact of IL-2 on Treatment Tolerance in Patients With High-Risk Neuroblastoma Treated With Dinutuximab Beta-Based Immunotherapy

Patients with high-risk neuroblastoma treated with continuous long-term infusion of anti-GD2 antibody dinutuximab beta (DB) in combination with IL-2 show an acceptable safety profile. Here, we compared treatment tolerance with and without IL-2. Ninety-nine patients with high-risk neuroblastoma received up to five cycles of DB given as long-term infusion (10 mg/m2/d, 100 mg/m2; per cycle) with IL-2 (53 patients; regimen A; 6 × 106 IU/m2/d; 60 × 106 IU/m2/cycle) and without IL-2 (46 patients; regimen B) in a single-center compassionate use program. Clinical parameters (body temperature, vital signs, Lansky performance score), laboratory values [C-reactive protein, IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-18 (cycle 1)], and requirement of i.v. co-medication (e.g., morphine, metamizole) were systematically assessed. Patients with stable clinical parameters and that did not require co-medication were defined as potential “outpatient candidates.” Patients showed higher levels of body temperature and CRP in regimen A compared to B. However, IL-6 serum concentrations were similar in pts of both cohorts in the first cycle. Patients receiving regimen B showed a shorter time to achieve normal vital parameters and required less co-medication compared to patients in regimen A that resulted in a shorter median time period to discharge and to achieve a potential outpatient status (6d regimen A and 3–5d regimen B after start of antibody infusion, respectively). This study shows that omitting IL-2 from immunotherapy with DB allows reduced co-medication and hospitalization time and therefore results in improved quality of life in patients with high-risk neuroblastoma

Chemotherapeutics Used for High-Risk Neuroblastoma Therapy Improve the Efficacy of Anti-GD2 Antibody Dinutuximab Beta in Preclinical Spheroid Models

Anti-disialoganglioside GD2 antibody ch14.18/CHO (dinutuximab beta, DB) improved the outcome of patients with high-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) in the maintenance phase. We investigated chemotherapeutic compounds used in newly diagnosed patients in combination with DB. Vincristine, etoposide, carboplatin, cisplatin, and cyclophosphamide, as well as DB, were used at concentrations achieved in pediatric clinical trials. The effects on stress ligand and checkpoint expression by neuroblastoma cells and on activation receptors of NK cells were determined by using flow cytometry. NK-cell activity was measured with a CD107a/IFN-γ assay. Long-term cytotoxicity was analyzed in three spheroid models derived from GD2-positive neuroblastoma cell lines (LAN-1, CHLA 20, and CHLA 136) expressing a fluorescent near-infrared protein. Chemotherapeutics combined with DB in the presence of immune cells improved cytotoxic efficacy up to 17-fold compared to in the controls, and the effect was GD2-specific. The activating stress and inhibitory checkpoint ligands on neuroblastoma cells were upregulated by the chemotherapeutics up to 9- and 5-fold, respectively, and activation receptors on NK cells were not affected. The CD107a/IFN-γ assay revealed no additional activation of NK cells by the chemotherapeutics. The synergistic effect of DB with chemotherapeutics seems primarily attributed to the combined toxicity of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and chemotherapy, which supports further clinical evaluation in frontline induction therapy

Immune Response and Outcome of High-Risk Neuroblastoma Patients Immunized with Anti-Idiotypic Antibody Ganglidiomab: Results from Compassionate-Use Treatments

(1) Background: High-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) is associated with a poor prognosis despite a multimodal high-intensity treatment regimen, including immunotherapy with anti-GD2 monoclonal antibodies (mAb). Here, we investigated the effects of an anti-idiotypic vaccine based on the mAb ganglidiomab that structurally mimics GD2. (2) Methods: Patients with HR-NB treated with anti-GD2 mAb dinutuximab beta and who achieved complete remission after frontline or salvage therapy were offered the vaccine (0.5 mg ganglidiomab adsorbed to Alhydrogel®). Side effects (CTCAE v4.03) and immune responses were determined on each visit. We also evaluated the time to relapse or progression until the last follow-up. (3) Results: Seven HR-NB patients (five frontlines, two relapsed) received 6–22 subcutaneous injections every two weeks. Six of the seven patients showed an immune response. The non-responding patient had a haploidentical stem cell transplantation as part of the previous treatment. No fever, pain, neuropathy, or toxicities ≥ grade 3 occurred during or post-treatment. All immunized patients did not experience relapses or progressions of their neuroblastoma. (4) Conclusions: This is the first-in-man use of the ganglidiomab vaccine, which was well-tolerated, and all patients not pre-treated by haploidentical transplantation developed vaccine-specific immune responses. These findings provide an important basis for the design of prospective clinical trials

Chemotherapeutics Used for High-Risk Neuroblastoma Therapy Improve the Efficacy of Anti-GD2 Antibody Dinutuximab Beta in Preclinical Spheroid Models

Anti-disialoganglioside GD2 antibody ch14.18/CHO (dinutuximab beta, DB) improved the outcome of patients with high-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) in the maintenance phase. We investigated chemotherapeutic compounds used in newly diagnosed patients in combination with DB. Vincristine, etoposide, carboplatin, cisplatin, and cyclophosphamide, as well as DB, were used at concentrations achieved in pediatric clinical trials. The effects on stress ligand and checkpoint expression by neuroblastoma cells and on activation receptors of NK cells were determined by using flow cytometry. NK-cell activity was measured with a CD107a/IFN-γ assay. Long-term cytotoxicity was analyzed in three spheroid models derived from GD2-positive neuroblastoma cell lines (LAN-1, CHLA 20, and CHLA 136) expressing a fluorescent near-infrared protein. Chemotherapeutics combined with DB in the presence of immune cells improved cytotoxic efficacy up to 17-fold compared to in the controls, and the effect was GD2-specific. The activating stress and inhibitory checkpoint ligands on neuroblastoma cells were upregulated by the chemotherapeutics up to 9- and 5-fold, respectively, and activation receptors on NK cells were not affected. The CD107a/IFN-γ assay revealed no additional activation of NK cells by the chemotherapeutics. The synergistic effect of DB with chemotherapeutics seems primarily attributed to the combined toxicity of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and chemotherapy, which supports further clinical evaluation in frontline induction therapy