Culture Brokering: A Qualitative Exploration of Orthodox Christian Iraqi Immigrant Families

The process of acculturation can be complex, stressful, and overwhelming for immigrant families (Rumbaut, 1994). As such, children are asked by their parents to assist with the acculturation process, often times in situations that are complicated or not age-appropriate (McQuillan & Tse, 1995). This role is often referred to as culture broker (e.g., Trickett, Sorani, & Birman, 2010). Culture brokering entails the participation of parents and their children; parents request the assistance, and the children, engage in various activities to provide that assistance. Extant literature on culture brokering has only studied the phenomenon from the perspective of the child, without much focus on the ways in which cultural characteristics, such as the gendered nature of family dynamics, influence the culture-brokering role, or how culture brokering shapes family dynamics, such as the issue of role reversal between the parents and their children. Therefore, the current study explored: (1) culture brokering from the perspectives of both parents and their children, (2) how culture brokering is related to family dynamics, (3) cultural influences that may shape the culture broker phenomenon, and (4) if and how culture brokering activities have changed over time. Semi-structured interviews with a sample of Orthodox Christian Iraqi immigrant parent-child dyads were conducted to provide information about culture brokering that is not presently evident in the empirical literature. The parent and child findings provide unique and often times divergent perspectives regarding the culture-brokering phenomenon. Implications and future directions for research are discussed

Developing a Multidimensional Instrument to Measure Culture Brokering

Migration from country to country has significantly increased over the past 25 years across the world (Beckerman & Corbett, 2008). During this transition, researchers assert that immigrants experience acculturation, the process of cultural and psychological change resulting from immigrants’ interactions with the residents, norms, laws, and institutions of the host country (Berry, 2006; Birman & Trickett, 2001). The process of acculturation can be complex, stressful, and overwhelming for immigrant families (Rumbaut, 1994). As such, immigrant parents ask their children to assist them with the acculturation process, taking on a role that has been referred to as culture brokering. Researchers have conceptualized and measured the culture brokering in various ways. However, the current conceptualizations and measurements have not captured the full range of activities in which culture brokers engage. The present study aimed to first expand upon the definition of the culture brokering construct to include four domains: Translator/Interpreter, Cultural Guide, Family Task Manager, and Family Consultant. Given this broadened re-conceptualization, a new measure which included items fully reflecting the culture brokering construct was needed. The subsequent aim of this study was to develop and validate a culture brokering instrument that measures the degree to which children serve as translators, guides, task managers, and consultants as part of their family’s acculturation process. Focus groups, cognitive interviews, and analyses of reliability and validity of the refined culture brokering instrument were conducted. Following, tests of discriminant, convergent, and predictive validity were performed, and a final version of the multidimensional culture brokering instrument is presented

Additional file 1: Figure S1. of Severe changes in colon epithelium in the Mecp2-null mouse model of Rett syndrome

Intestinal MECP2 deletion using the villin-Cre Tg mouse. Immunofluorescence was performed to detect MECP2 protein in colon samples from (A) Mecp2 flox/y mouse and (B) Mecp2 Δ3–4/y. Positive signal was detected in the Mecp2 Δ3–4/y mouse at the bottom of the crypts mainly. Representative images of three animals per group. (DOCX 211 kb

Morphology and body weights of <i>Kcnj13</i> null mutant mice.

<p>a. Analysis of Kir7.1 expression in WT, heterozygous and null mutant mice; cyclophilin A (Cyc1) is used as constitutively expressed control gene. b. Gross morphology of WT, and heterozygous and homozygous <i>Kcnj13</i> null mutant newborn pups. c. Body weight vs. embryonic stage for WT (circles), <i>Kcnj13</i>^<i>+/-</i> (triangles), and <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- (squares) embryos. Results are expressed as mean ± S.E.M. of the following numbers of embryos: 12.5 dpc: WT 3, <i>Kcnj13</i>^<i>+/-</i> 9, <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- 4; 13.5 dpc: WT 9, <i>Kcnj13</i>^<i>+/-</i> 14, <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- 2; n 14.5 dpc: WT 3, <i>Kcnj13</i>^<i>+/-</i> 11, <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- 6; 15.5 dpc: WT 7, <i>Kcnj13</i>^<i>+/-</i> 20, <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- 14; 16.5 dpc: WT 7, <i>Kcnj13</i>^<i>+/-</i> 5, <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- 4; 17.5 dpc:WT 5, <i>Kcnj13</i>^<i>+/-</i> 12, <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- 6; 18.5 dpc: WT 4, <i>Kcnj13</i>^<i>+/-</i> 5, <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- 6; P0: WT 7, <i>Kcnj13</i>^<i>+/-</i> 15, <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- 10. * p< 0.001; ** p <0.05 for the differences between <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- and <i>Kcnj13</i>^<i>+/+</i> data (ANOVA).</p

Basolateral expression of Kir7.1 channel in the epithelium of the airways.

<p>Immunohistochemical detection of Kir7.1 channel in trachea (left) and bronchiole (right) in adult <i>Kcnj13</i>^+/+, newborn <i>Kcnj13</i>^+/+ or newborn <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- mice. Tissue sections were treated with anti-Kir7.1 antibody (1:15,000). Kir7.1 expression was restricted to the basolateral membrane of airway epithelium in adult and newborn <i>Kcnj13</i>^+/+ mice. Staining in <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- tissues shows complete absence of specific immunoreactive signal. Nuclei were counterstained with Fast Red. Scale bar represents 50 μm.</p

Pulmonary abnormalities in embryonic lungs from <i>Kcnj13</i>^-/- mice.

<p>a. Hematoxylin and eosin stained lung sections taken at various gestational stages as indicated. Morphological differences in KO lungs were observed at E18.5 and P0. Null mutant mice show a lower air space and thicker walls at lung terminal sacs compared to WT and heterozygous mice. No differences were visible between <i>Kcnj13</i>^+/+ and <i>Kcnj13</i>^+/- genotypes. Scale bars represent 100 μm. b. Morphometric analysis of terminal sac spaces in lungs at various gestational stages. Significant reduction in spaces was observed in Kir7.1 deficient mice from E18.5 onwards. Results are expressed as mean ± S.E.M, # p<0.05 and * p<0.01 for the difference with WT by ANOVA. c. Graphical representation of newborn lung flotation test. Grey sections of columns correspond to percent of floating lungs, with black being the percent sinking lungs.</p

Survival of <i>Kcnj13</i>^- mutant mice.

<p>Survival of <i>Kcnj13</i>^- mutant mice.</p

NFAT5 and HIF-1α are independently up-regulated by hypoxia.

<p>HEK293 cells cultured at 300 mosmol were transfected with control (C), NFAT5 or HIF-1α siRNA. 48 hrs after transfection the cells were cultured in normoxia (N) or 8 hrs of hypoxia (H). <b>A.</b> Protein abundance of NFAT5 and HIF-1α were studied by Western blot in cells transfected with siRNA against NFAT5. <b>B.</b> Protein abundance of NFAT5 and HIF-1α were studied by Western blot in cells transfected with siRNA against HIF-1α. A representative picture is shown in the upper section. Bar graph represents Mean ± SEM. *, P<0.05; n = 5.</p

NFAT5 has a protective role against hypoxia.

<p>HEK293 cells cultured at 300 mosmol were transfected with control and NFAT5 siRNA. 48 hrs after transfection the cells were exposed for 8 hrs to 2.5% PO₂. <b>A.</b> Western blot of NFAT5. <b>B.</b> LDH activity was assayed in cell culture media and cell lysate by spectrometric determination of NADH. <b>C.</b> Western blot of M30. <b>D.</b> Western blot of Cleaved caspase-3. Bar graph represents Mean ± SEM. *, P<0.05; n = 5.</p

Experimental I/R induced renal Aldose Reductase (AR) expression.

<p><b>A.</b> AR protein abundance in protein homogenates from cortex and medulla of rat kidney determined by Western blot. A representative picture is shown in the upper section. <b>B.</b> AR mRNA abundance in kidney cortex and medulla measured by qRT-PCR. Bar graph represents Mean ± SEM. * or & indicates P<0.05; n = 5 (*<i>vs</i> sham medulla & <i>vs</i> sham cortex).</p