Protection of “Exclusive” Groups Only – An Essential Element of Genocide

oai:oai.rlj.elpub.ru:article/529The crime of genocide, as one of the most complex crimes ever to be examined and prosecuted, is often referred to as the “crime of crimes.” It is never the result of a tragic accident, but always a deliberate, conscious, and intentional act. It is never a single act, but a collection of acts committed by a number of people acting in consort. Several elements of genocide prescribed by the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948) distinguish it from other core crimes. The first one is the intention to destroy a protected group – the very specific intention that brings into question the core existence of the group itself. The second element is the focus of the perpetrator’s intent on a particular group; his intent on destruction has to be directed against a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group. No other groups are included on that list. Given the significance to the protected group, this paper will focus on some important issues relating to the protected groups and their identifications, both in legal theory and jurisprudence of international courts. It will also cover some considerations on the exclusion of some other groups that are left unprotected from genocide

Border Dispute in the Adriatic Sea between Croatia and Slovenia

This Article represents an overview of long-running borderdispute between two neighbouring states – Republicof Croatia and Republicof Slovenia in the maritime area ofthe Northern Adriatic. Despite more than twodecades of unsuccessful efforts, including several documents controversial onone or both sides, there are still some disputable points waiting for the finalsettlement. It is expected to be reached by the Arbitration Tribunalestablished by the Arbitration Agreement between Croatia and Slovenia, signed in 2009. Without any doubt, this Agreement represents astep forward in their mutual efforts toward peaceful solution, but alsocontains few open questions to be resolved by the Arbitration Tribunal. Inthis Article the author presents brief overview of long-time efforts that ledto the conclusion of the Arbitration Agreement, as well as the main componentsthat has to be considered – strong political demands in relation to preserveterritorial integrities of both states and – at the end – to accomplish apeaceful solution in accordance to the rules of international law

Das Verbrechen der Vergewaltigung in der Rechtsprechung des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes für das Ehemalige Jugoslawien und Des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes für Ruanda

Despite the fact that women may be active participants in armed conflicts as soldiers, they are still mostly the victims. Violation against women during war time is not just an act of sexual violence, but rather a method of warfare, i.e., an instrument of revenge and a means of dishonouring not just the woman, but “her man“ and in the end the whole nation. Through the case-law of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (hereinafter: ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (hereinafter: ICTR) it has become obvious that the crime of rape is no longer a matter of state, but that it has been recognized as a crime on the international level – as a crime against humanity, serious war crime, and (in some cases where we can fortify and sustain a mens rea) even genocide. The fact that many women do not acknowledge what happened - because of the traditional upbringing and rigid religious systems, is at the same time interesting and daunting. In many cases being a rape victim is a shame for the raped woman.Unatoč tome što žene u oružanim sukobima sudjeluju kao vojnici, one su uglavnom ipak žrtve. Nasilje nad ženama tijekom ratnih vremena nije samo čin seksualnog nasilja, već i metoda ratovanja, odnosno instrument osvete i sredstvo izražavanja nepoštivanja i omalovažavanja ne samo žene, već i “njenog” muškarca, pa čak i nacije kojoj žena pripada. Aktivnost i sudska praksa Međunarodnog kaznenog tribunala za bivšu Jugoslaviju (u nastavku: ICTY) i Međunarodnog kaznenog tribunala za Ruandu (u nastavku: ICTR) ukazale su na očitu činjenicu da zločin silovanja nije više u nadležnosti samo unutarnjeg zakonodavstva pojedine države, već se radi o zločinu priznatom i prepoznatom kao međunarodni zločin – taj se zločin može sagledati u kontekstu zločina protiv čovječnosti, ratnog zločina, pa čak i (u slučajevima postojanja elementa mens rea) zločina genocida. Činjenica da mnoge žene u praksi ne priznaju što im se dogodilo – pod utjecajem tradicionalnih patrijarhalnih i strogih religioznih sustava, u isto je vrijeme i zanimljiva i zastrašujuća. U mnogim slučajevima biti žrtva silovanja jest sramota za silovanu ženu.Obwohl Frauen an bewaffneten Konflikten auch als Soldatinnen mitwirken, sind sie dennoch in der überwiegenden Zahl Opfer. Gewalt gegen Frauen in Kriegszeiten ist nicht nur ein Akt sexueller Gewalt, sondern auch eine Methode der Kriegsführung, ein Instrument der Rache und Demütigung, durch das nicht nur Missachtung gegenüber den Frauen, sondern auch gegenüber ihren männlichen Partnern und sogar der Nation, der sie angehören, demonstriert wird. Die Tätigkeit und Rechtsprechung des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes für das ehemalige Jugoslawien (im Folgenden: ICTY) sowie des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes für Ruanda (im Folgenden: ICTR) machen die offenkundige Tatsache deutlich, dass das Verbrechen der Vergewaltigung nicht mehr allein unter die Zuständigkeit der innerstaatlichen Gesetzgebung fällt, sondern als internationales Verbrechen erkannt und anerkannt wurde, sodass es im Zusammenhang des Verbrechens gegen die Menschlichkeit, des Kriegsverbrechens und – sofern das Merkmal der mens rea erfüllt ist – sogar des Völkermords zu betrachten ist. Die Tatsache, dass viele Frauen unter dem Einfluss traditioneller patriarchalischer und strenger religiöser Systeme nicht zugeben wollen, was ihnen widerfahren ist, ist bemerkenswert und erschreckend zugleich. In vielen Fällen ist es für die vergewaltigte Frau eine Schande, Opfer einer Vergewaltigung geworden zu sein

LA CONVENZIONE SUI DIRITTI DELLE PERSONE CON DISABILITÀ E LA CAPACITÀ GIURIDICA DELLE PERSONE CON DISABILITÀ PSICOSOCIALI - SFIDE CONTEMPORANEE

The first international document to be adopted in the field of human rights protection in the 21st century was the Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. It imposes on its parties the obligation to create conditions that will enable persons with psychosocial disabilities to finally exercise their rights, will, and preferences on an equal basis with other members of society. The paper is divided into two parts: the first presents the new concept of legal capacity prescribed in Art. 12, in which the role of the state is seen through the commitments to implement faster and more efficient paradigm shifts in the approach to protecting the rights of these persons and the shift from substitute to supported decision-making. The second part deals with the interpretation and application of Art. 12 in the States Parties. Special attention will be paid to the challenges faced by states and how successfully they meet their obligations under the Convention through the elaboration of individual states’ reports on the implementation of Art. 12 and the views and recommendations of the Committee for the protection of persons with disabilities.Prvi međunarodni dokument koji je na polju zaštite ljudskih prava usvojen u 21. stoljeću bila je Konvencija o pravima osoba s invaliditetom. Ona svojim strankama nalaže obvezu stvaranja uvjeta koji će omogućiti da osobe s duševnim smetnjama konačno ostvare svoja prava, volju i sklonosti na ravnopravnoj osnovi s ostalim članovima društva. Rad je podijeljen u dva dijela: u prvom dijelu izlaže se novi koncept poslovne sposobnosti propisan u čl. 12. Konvencije u kojem se uloga države sagledava kroz preuzete obveze realizacije brže i učinkovitije promjene paradigme u pristupu zaštiti prava ovih osoba te pomaka od zamjenskog ka potpomognutom odlučivanju. Drugi dio rada bavi se tumačenjem i primjenom čl. 12 u državama strankama. S kojim se izazovima države pritom susreću i koliko uspješno udovoljavaju obvezama iz Konvencije, u radu se analizira kroz razradu izvješća pojedinih država o implementaciji čl. 12. te stavova i preporuka Odbora za zaštitu osoba s invaliditetom.Das erste völkerrechtliche Instrument im Bereich des Menschenrechtsschutzes das im 21. Jahrhundert verabschiedet wurde ist die Behindertenrechtskonvention. Die Konvention verpflichtet ihre Parteien jene Umstände zu schaffen, welche Menschen mit geistiger Behinderung ihre Rechte, Willen und Neigungen geltend zu machen ermöglichen, und zwar auf gleicher Grundlage wie allen anderen Gesellschaftsmitgliedern. Dieser Beitrag ist in zwei Teile gegliedert: im ersten wird der neue Begriff der Geschäftsfähigkeit nach Maßgabe Art. 12 der Konvention aufgezeigt, in welchem die Rolle des Staates aus der Perspektive der übernommenen Pflichten der Realisierung einer schnellen und wirkungsvollen Änderung des Zugangs zum Schutz der Behindertenrechte, und des Voranschreitens von stellvertretender zur unterstützen Entscheidungsfindung. Der zweite Teil befasst sich mit der Auslegung und Anwendung des Art. 12 in Konventionsstaaten. Ausgehend von den Berichten einzelner Staaten zur Implementierung des Art. 12 und Ansichten und Empfehlungen des Ausschusses für den Schutz von Behinderten wird auf die Herausforderungen, mit welchen sich die Staaten auseinandersetzen müssen, hingewiesen und darüber hinaus erläutert, mit welchem Erfolg die Staaten die Konventionsforderungen erfüllen.Il primo documento internazionale adottato nel campo della protezione dei diritti umani nel XXI secolo fu la Convenzione sui diritti delle persone con disabilità. Essa impone alle parti l’obbligo di creare le condizioni che finalmente permetteranno alle persone con disabilità psicosociali di esercitare i loro diritti, la loro volontà e le loro preferenze nel rispetto dell’uguaglianza di tutti i membri della società. Il lavoro è suddiviso in due parti: la prima presenta il nuovo concetto di capacità giuridica prescritta nell’ art. 12, nel quale il ruolo dello stato è percepito tramite qli impegni intrapresi nell’implementazione per un cambiamento di paradigma più veloce e più efficace nell’aproccio della protezione dei diritti di queste persone e per uno spostamento dal processo decisionale sostitutivo a quello supportato. La seconda parte tratta l’interpretazione e l’applicazione dell’art. 12 negli Stati membri. Un’attenzione speciale sarà data alle sfide affrontate dagli stati e con quanto successo essi rispettino gli obblighi imposti ai sensi della Convenzione tramite l’elaborazione dei rapporti dei singoli stati nell’implementazione dell’art. 12 e le prospettive e le raccomandazioni della Commissione per la protezione delle persone con disabilità

Promjena kvalifikacije oružanog sukoba

Moderne oružane sukobe kakve danas poznajemo dijelimo u dvije osnovne skupine: međunarodne oružane sukobe, s jedne strane, te nemeđunarodne oružane sukobe, s druge. Različiti modaliteti sukoba u praksi dovode do situacija u kojima je ponekad teško povući granicu definiranja i razlikovanja svake od tih vrsta sukoba. Unatoč tome što se u međunarodnim dokumentima ne spominju slučajevi spajanja i preklapanja međunarodnih i nemeđunarodnih oružanih sukoba, posebice prerastanje nemeđunarodnog u međunarodni oružani sukob, oni su poznati i postoje u praksi. U radu se razmatraju sljedeći slučajevi promjene kvalifikacija oružanog sukoba: priznanje ustanika od strane zakonite vlasti, uporaba oružane sile Ujedinjenih naroda, te oružana intervencija jedne države na području druge

Kinderschutz in bewaffneten Konflikten gemäß den Resolutionen des UNO-Sicherheitsrates

Posebna kategorija civila na koje oružani sukob ima nesumnjiv utjecaj, a koja u njima uživaju i posebnu zaštitu, jesu djeca. Ta se zaštita manifestira kroz niz općih odredbi o zaštiti civilnog stanovništva koje ne sudjeluje izravno u neprijateljstvima, a velik dio kojeg čine upravo djeca. Drugi oblik zaštite zajamčen je kroz posebne odredbe predviđene nizom međunarodnih dokumenata posvećenih samo zaštiti djece. Oba dopunska protokola uz Ženevske konvencije iz 1949. godine, Konvencija o pravima djeteta, Fakultativni protokol uz Konvenciju o pravima djeteta svojim obvezujućim djelovanjem na države koje su ih prihvatile nastoje što je više moguće poboljšati status djece i ograničiti njihovo sudjelovanje u neprijateljstvima. Najnoviji fenomen modernih oružanih sukoba jest novačenje djece u oružane snage. Stoga je Vijeće sigurnosti kroz nekoliko svojih rezolucija u posljednjem desetljeću posebnu pozornost posvetilo položaju djece u oružanim sukobima, pitanjima demobilizacije i reintegracije djece-vojnika, uz stalno izražavanje zabrinutosti zbog porasta broja izbjegle i raseljene djece diljem svijeta.Children are a special category of civilians that are affected by armed conflict and that should enjoy special protection. This protection is manifested in a series of general regulations on the protection of civilians not taking a direct part in hostilities, many of whom are children. Another form of protection is guaranteed by special regulations envisaged by a series of international documents dedicated solely to the protection of children. Both Protocols Additional to the Geneva Convention of 1949, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child which are binding for the states who have accepted them aim at improving the status of children and limit their participation in hostilities. One of the most recent phenomena in modern armed conflicts is the conscription of children in armed forces. Therefore the Security Council has passed several resolutions in the last decade dedicated to the position of children in armed conflict, issues of demobilization and re-integration of child-soldiers, with constant expressions of concern because of the increased number of child refugees and displaced persons all around the world.Eine besondere Kategorie von Zivilpersonen, für die besonderer Schutz in bewaffneten Konflikten vorgesehen ist, sind Kinder. Diesen Schutz regeln eine Reihe von allgemeinen Bestimmungen über den Schutz der Zivilbevölkerung, die nicht an feindseligen Handlungen beteiligt ist, und ein großer Teil dieser Bevölkerung sind eben Kinder. Die zweite Form des Schutzes ist durch Sondervorschriften in einer Reihe von internationalen Verträgen gewährleistet, die sich ausschließlich auf den Kinderschutz beziehen. Beide Zusatzprotokolle zu den Genfer Übereinkommen von 1949, das Übereinkommen über die Rechte des Kindes und das Fakultative Protokoll zum Übereinkommen über die Rechte des Kindes, die für ihre Unterzeichnerstaaten verpflichtend sind, versuchen den Status der Kinder möglichst zu verbessern und ihre Beteiligung an feindseligen Handlungen zu beschränken. Das jüngste Phänomen in bewaffneten Konflikten unserer Zeit ist die Einziehung von Kindern in Streitkräfte. Deshalb widmet der Sicherheitsrat dem Status der Kinder in bewaffneten Konflikte sowie Fragen der Demobilisierung und Reintegration von Kindersoldaten in mehreren Resolutionen der letzten zehn Jahre besondere Aufmerksamkeit. Auch seine ständige Besorgnis über den Anstieg der Anzahl geflüchteter und vertriebener Kinder weltweit wird darin geäußert

DIVISION OF RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS ACCORDING TO THE UN CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA IN THE CASE OF POLLUTION OF THE MARITIME ENVIRONMENT

Onečišćenja u smislu bilo kojih oblika ljudskih aktivnosti koje mogu izazvati nepopravljive promjene i štetu na prirodnom okolišu, predstavljaju jedan od značajnijih problema današnjice. Čovjekovo izravno ili neizravno unošenje tvari ili energije u morski okoliš koje rezultira različitim posljedicama, kao što su šteta živim bogatstvima i životu u moru, ugrožavanje ljudskog zdravlja i ometanje pomorskih djelatnosti, smatramo onečišćenjem morskog okoliša. Jedan od načina njegove devastacije jesu i onečišćenja s brodova. U odnosu na materiju onečišćenja morskog okoliša i položaj broda nakon počinjenog onečišćenja, brod može biti podvrgnut vlasti obalne države, države zastave broda ili države luke u koju je nakon onečišćenja uplovio. Svaka od tih država prema Konvenciji UN o pravu mora ima određena prava i obveze u provedbi i primjeni pravila za zaštitu morskog okoliša.Pollution, caused by any kind of human activities, which can induce serious and irreparable harm to environmental transformation is one of the most signifi cant problems of a mankind. Pollution of the marine environment means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment, including estuaries, which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources and marine life, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including fi shing and other legitimate uses of the sea, impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities. One of the sources of marine environment pollution is pollution from vessels. With regard to these category of the marine environment pollution, and vessel position after pollution has been made, vessel can be submitted to authority of coastal state, fl ag state or port state. According to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, each of these states shall have certain rights and duties in application of environment protection regulations

Das Verbrechen der Vergewaltigung in der Rechtsprechung des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes für das Ehemalige Jugoslawien und Des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes für Ruanda

Despite the fact that women may be active participants in armed conflicts as soldiers, they are still mostly the victims. Violation against women during war time is not just an act of sexual violence, but rather a method of warfare, i.e., an instrument of revenge and a means of dishonouring not just the woman, but “her man“ and in the end the whole nation. Through the case-law of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (hereinafter: ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (hereinafter: ICTR) it has become obvious that the crime of rape is no longer a matter of state, but that it has been recognized as a crime on the international level – as a crime against humanity, serious war crime, and (in some cases where we can fortify and sustain a mens rea) even genocide. The fact that many women do not acknowledge what happened - because of the traditional upbringing and rigid religious systems, is at the same time interesting and daunting. In many cases being a rape victim is a shame for the raped woman.Unatoč tome što žene u oružanim sukobima sudjeluju kao vojnici, one su uglavnom ipak žrtve. Nasilje nad ženama tijekom ratnih vremena nije samo čin seksualnog nasilja, već i metoda ratovanja, odnosno instrument osvete i sredstvo izražavanja nepoštivanja i omalovažavanja ne samo žene, već i “njenog” muškarca, pa čak i nacije kojoj žena pripada. Aktivnost i sudska praksa Međunarodnog kaznenog tribunala za bivšu Jugoslaviju (u nastavku: ICTY) i Međunarodnog kaznenog tribunala za Ruandu (u nastavku: ICTR) ukazale su na očitu činjenicu da zločin silovanja nije više u nadležnosti samo unutarnjeg zakonodavstva pojedine države, već se radi o zločinu priznatom i prepoznatom kao međunarodni zločin – taj se zločin može sagledati u kontekstu zločina protiv čovječnosti, ratnog zločina, pa čak i (u slučajevima postojanja elementa mens rea) zločina genocida. Činjenica da mnoge žene u praksi ne priznaju što im se dogodilo – pod utjecajem tradicionalnih patrijarhalnih i strogih religioznih sustava, u isto je vrijeme i zanimljiva i zastrašujuća. U mnogim slučajevima biti žrtva silovanja jest sramota za silovanu ženu.Obwohl Frauen an bewaffneten Konflikten auch als Soldatinnen mitwirken, sind sie dennoch in der überwiegenden Zahl Opfer. Gewalt gegen Frauen in Kriegszeiten ist nicht nur ein Akt sexueller Gewalt, sondern auch eine Methode der Kriegsführung, ein Instrument der Rache und Demütigung, durch das nicht nur Missachtung gegenüber den Frauen, sondern auch gegenüber ihren männlichen Partnern und sogar der Nation, der sie angehören, demonstriert wird. Die Tätigkeit und Rechtsprechung des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes für das ehemalige Jugoslawien (im Folgenden: ICTY) sowie des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes für Ruanda (im Folgenden: ICTR) machen die offenkundige Tatsache deutlich, dass das Verbrechen der Vergewaltigung nicht mehr allein unter die Zuständigkeit der innerstaatlichen Gesetzgebung fällt, sondern als internationales Verbrechen erkannt und anerkannt wurde, sodass es im Zusammenhang des Verbrechens gegen die Menschlichkeit, des Kriegsverbrechens und – sofern das Merkmal der mens rea erfüllt ist – sogar des Völkermords zu betrachten ist. Die Tatsache, dass viele Frauen unter dem Einfluss traditioneller patriarchalischer und strenger religiöser Systeme nicht zugeben wollen, was ihnen widerfahren ist, ist bemerkenswert und erschreckend zugleich. In vielen Fällen ist es für die vergewaltigte Frau eine Schande, Opfer einer Vergewaltigung geworden zu sein

Kinderschutz in bewaffneten Konflikten gemäß den Resolutionen des UNO-Sicherheitsrates

Posebna kategorija civila na koje oružani sukob ima nesumnjiv utjecaj, a koja u njima uživaju i posebnu zaštitu, jesu djeca. Ta se zaštita manifestira kroz niz općih odredbi o zaštiti civilnog stanovništva koje ne sudjeluje izravno u neprijateljstvima, a velik dio kojeg čine upravo djeca. Drugi oblik zaštite zajamčen je kroz posebne odredbe predviđene nizom međunarodnih dokumenata posvećenih samo zaštiti djece. Oba dopunska protokola uz Ženevske konvencije iz 1949. godine, Konvencija o pravima djeteta, Fakultativni protokol uz Konvenciju o pravima djeteta svojim obvezujućim djelovanjem na države koje su ih prihvatile nastoje što je više moguće poboljšati status djece i ograničiti njihovo sudjelovanje u neprijateljstvima. Najnoviji fenomen modernih oružanih sukoba jest novačenje djece u oružane snage. Stoga je Vijeće sigurnosti kroz nekoliko svojih rezolucija u posljednjem desetljeću posebnu pozornost posvetilo položaju djece u oružanim sukobima, pitanjima demobilizacije i reintegracije djece-vojnika, uz stalno izražavanje zabrinutosti zbog porasta broja izbjegle i raseljene djece diljem svijeta.Children are a special category of civilians that are affected by armed conflict and that should enjoy special protection. This protection is manifested in a series of general regulations on the protection of civilians not taking a direct part in hostilities, many of whom are children. Another form of protection is guaranteed by special regulations envisaged by a series of international documents dedicated solely to the protection of children. Both Protocols Additional to the Geneva Convention of 1949, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child which are binding for the states who have accepted them aim at improving the status of children and limit their participation in hostilities. One of the most recent phenomena in modern armed conflicts is the conscription of children in armed forces. Therefore the Security Council has passed several resolutions in the last decade dedicated to the position of children in armed conflict, issues of demobilization and re-integration of child-soldiers, with constant expressions of concern because of the increased number of child refugees and displaced persons all around the world.Eine besondere Kategorie von Zivilpersonen, für die besonderer Schutz in bewaffneten Konflikten vorgesehen ist, sind Kinder. Diesen Schutz regeln eine Reihe von allgemeinen Bestimmungen über den Schutz der Zivilbevölkerung, die nicht an feindseligen Handlungen beteiligt ist, und ein großer Teil dieser Bevölkerung sind eben Kinder. Die zweite Form des Schutzes ist durch Sondervorschriften in einer Reihe von internationalen Verträgen gewährleistet, die sich ausschließlich auf den Kinderschutz beziehen. Beide Zusatzprotokolle zu den Genfer Übereinkommen von 1949, das Übereinkommen über die Rechte des Kindes und das Fakultative Protokoll zum Übereinkommen über die Rechte des Kindes, die für ihre Unterzeichnerstaaten verpflichtend sind, versuchen den Status der Kinder möglichst zu verbessern und ihre Beteiligung an feindseligen Handlungen zu beschränken. Das jüngste Phänomen in bewaffneten Konflikten unserer Zeit ist die Einziehung von Kindern in Streitkräfte. Deshalb widmet der Sicherheitsrat dem Status der Kinder in bewaffneten Konflikte sowie Fragen der Demobilisierung und Reintegration von Kindersoldaten in mehreren Resolutionen der letzten zehn Jahre besondere Aufmerksamkeit. Auch seine ständige Besorgnis über den Anstieg der Anzahl geflüchteter und vertriebener Kinder weltweit wird darin geäußert