Staying in touch : how highly specialised moth pollinators track host plant phenology in unpredictable climates

Background: For specialised pollinators, the synchrony of plant and pollinator life history is critical to the persistence of pollinator populations. This is even more critical in nursery pollination, where pollinators are obligately dependant on female host plant flowers for oviposition sites. Epicephala moths (Gracillariidae) form highly specialised nursery pollination mutualisms with Phyllanthaceae plants. Several hundred Phyllanthaceae are estimated to be exclusively pollinated by highly specific Epicephala moths, making these mutualisms an outstanding example of plant–insect coevolution. However, there have been no studies of how Epicephala moths synchronise their activity with host plant flowering or persist through periods when flowers are absent. Such knowledge is critical to understanding the ecology and evolutionary stability of these mutualisms. We surveyed multiple populations of both Breynia oblongifolia (Phyllanthaceae) and it’s Epicephala pollinators for over two years to determine their phenology and modelled the environmental factors that underpin their interactions. Results: The abundance of flowers and fruits was highly variable and strongly linked to local rainfall and photoperiod. Unlike male flowers and fruits, female flowers were present throughout the entire year, including winter. Fruit abundance was a significant predictor of adult Epicephala activity, suggesting that eggs or early instar larvae diapause within dormant female flowers and emerge as fruits mature. Searches of overwintering female flowers confirmed that many contained pollen and diapausing pollinators. We also observed diapause in Epicephala prior to pupation, finding that 12% (9/78) of larvae emerging from fruits in the autumn entered an extended diapause for 38–48 weeks. The remaining autumn emerging larvae pupated directly without diapause, suggesting a possible bet-hedging strategy. Conclusions: Epicephala appear to use diapause at multiple stages in their lifecycle to survive variable host plant phenology. Furthermore, moth abundance was predicted by the same environmental variables as male flowers, suggesting that moths track flowering through temperature. These adaptations may thereby mitigate against unpredictability in the timing of fruiting and flowering because of variable rainfall. It remains to be seen how widespread egg diapause and pre-pupal diapause may be within Epicephala moths, and, furthermore, to what degree these traits may have facilitated the evolution of these highly diverse mutualisms

Changes in plant species abundance alter the multifunctionality and functional space of heathland ecosystems

Though it is well established that species composition affects ecosystem function, the way in which species combine to control overall ecosystem functioning is still debated. In experimental mesocosms, we planted three functionally distinct dry-heath species in varying proportions and measured multiple ecosystem properties related to nutrient cycling and carbon storage (hereafter functions). Overall ecosystem functioning was described as the main axes of variation in ecosystem functioning (functional space) and the proportion of ecosystem functions at high levels; for example, fast carbon and nutrient cycling (cluster-based multifunctionality). The first functional space axis, related to nitrogen availability, was driven by plant species abundance, particularly that of legumes, which strongly affected many individual functions. The second, related to total plant biomass and woodiness, was mostly driven by the abundance of dwarf shrubs. Similarly, cluster-based multifunctionality was related to the initial abundance of all species, but particularly the legume. Interactions between species also affected ecosystem multifunctionality, but these effects were smaller in magnitude. These results indicate that species interactions could play a secondary role to species abundance and identity in driving the overall ecosystem functioning of heathlands, but also that axes of variation in functional space are clearly linked to plant functional composition

Out-of-school learning: the uneven distribution of school provision and local authority support

A significant volume of research demonstrates that out‐of‐school learning activities enhance student development in terms of cognitive, affective and social outcomes. However, there is also evidence that the opportunity to engage in these activities has been severely reduced in recent years. This paper explores the extent to which the provision of such opportunities is unevenly distributed—spatially and institutionally. The paper draws on research from two recently completed projects: one charting the distribution, attributes and vulnerability of local authority outdoor education centres across England and the other exploring variations in provision and participation in out‐of‐school learning within secondary schools throughout the UK. The paper highlights the uneven, precarious and uncertain nature of such activities and demonstrates that important regional and structural variations in the support and provision of opportunities for such activities by local authorities appear to have an important role in determining the provision of activities at the level of the schools

Graduating and gradations within the middle class: the legacy of an elite higher education

This paper explores the significance of an elite higher education for occupational differentiation within the middle class. The paper is based on longitudinal research derived from a cohort of thirty-year olds whom we have been following since the start of their secondary education when they were deemed to be ‘destined for success’. The large majority have subsequently graduated and are in professional and managerial occupations. However, even within this picture of overall ‘success’, there are within-cohort differences which highlight the significance of an elite education on subsequent destinations. Those who went to an elite university were generally in higher level occupations and on higher salaries than those who went to less prestigious, and particularly post-1992, universities. Although this may suggest the fine-grained workings of a meritocracy at the ‘top end’, the success of private schools in sending their pupils to Oxbridge (with lower A level results than state schools) and the relatively higher earnings of privately-schooled non-graduates indicate an enduring school sector effect. Indeed, the difference in earning outcomes within our sample of respondents leads one to question the economic value of obtaining degrees from less prestigious universities and colleges of higher education

Out-of-school learning: variations in provision and participation in secondary schools: Final report to the Campaign For Real World Learning

Despite overwhelming evidence of the benefits of out-of-school learning activities for enhancing cognitive and affective outcomes, there are growing concerns that the provision of such activities is threatened by increasing resource constraints, regulation and risk aversion. This research set out to investigate how schools experience these threats and how they impact on the provision of and participation in out-of-school learning activities

Tree traits and microclimatic conditions determine cooling benefits of urban trees

Trees play a key role in mitigating urban heat by cooling the local environment. This study evaluated the extent to which street trees can reduce sub-canopy air temperature relative to ambient conditions (DT), and how DT relates to tree traits and microclimatic variables. Air temperature under the canopies of 10 species was recorded within residential areas in Western Sydney, Australia, during summer 2019–2020. Tree and canopy traits, namely tree height, specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, leaf area index, crown width and the Huber value (the ratio of sapwood area to leaf area) were then measured for all species. Species differed significantly in their DT values, with peak cooling (maximum DT 3.9 C) observed between 9–10 am and sub-canopy warming (i.e., positive DT values) typically occurring during afternoon and overnight. Trees with high LAI and wider canopies were associated with the greatest daytime cooling benefits and lower levels of nighttime warming. DT was also negatively related to windspeed and vapor pressure deficit, and positively to solar irradiance. This study provides valuable information on how tree characteristics and microclimate influence potential cooling benefits that may aid planning decisions on the use of trees to mitigate heat in urban landscapes

Co-Flowering Species Richness Increases Pollinator Visitation to Apple Flowers

Co-flowering plants can experience an array of interactions, ranging from facilitation to competition, the direction and strength of which are often dependent on the relative abundance and diversity of the plant species involved and the foraging behavior of their pollinators. Understanding interactions between plant−pollinator networks and how they change over time is particularly important within agricultural systems, such as apples, that flower en masse and that also contain non-crop co-flowering species both within the farm and the surrounding landscape. We determined the degree of overlap between pollinator networks on two varieties of apple (Granny Smith and Pink Lady) and co-flowering plant species within orchards and the wider vegetation matrix in two apple-growing regions (Orange and Bilpin) in Australia. We surveyed plant−pollinator interactions at key stages of the cropping cycle: before mass flowering; during king, peak and late blooms; and, finally, once apple flowering had finished. Overall, we found considerable overlap in the flower visitor assemblage on apples and co-flowering species within the orchard. The introduced honeybee (Apis mellifera) was the most frequent flower visitor to all three vegetation types at all times in Orange. However, in Bilpin, both a native stingless bee (Tetragonula carbonaria) and A. mellifera were highly frequent visitors, both on- and off-crop. Numerous native bees, flies and Lepidoptera also commonly visited apple and co-flowering species within orchards in both locations. We found that native-bee and honeybee visitation to apple flowers was positively correlated with co-flowering species richness (within the orchard and the wider matrix); however, visitation by native bees decreased as the area of co-flowering species in the surrounding landscape increased. Our study highlights the importance of maintaining diverse co-flowering plant communities within the local landscape to increase and support a wide variety of pollinators in horticultural production systems

Giving something back? Sentiments of privilege and social responsibility among elite graduates from Britain and France

This article explores the complex relationship between transnational elites and civil society through examining the contrasting orientations of two cohorts of ‘elite graduates’ from Paris and Oxford. Both cohorts believe their privileged status has been earned through hard work and ability. But they are also aware that they have benefited from advantages not available to all. Perhaps because of this, they express the need to ‘give something back’. However, the means through which they seek to discharge their social responsibilities are very different. While the Oxford graduates seek to ‘give something back’ through volunteering and third sector engagement, the Paris graduates will ‘give something back’ through public service. The article discusses how the contrasting relationship between the state, civil society and the education system in these two countries may shape dispositions, and speculates on the extent to which these elite recruits’ commitment to ‘give something back’ will make a difference