The oculocardiac reflex and visual training

The oculocardiac reflex is a change in heart rate or rhythm produced by manipulation of the eyes or adnexia. It is known to occur during surgery on the eyes when traction is applied to the extraocular muscles. This study evaluates the possibility that the oculocardiac reflex can be elicited by doing prism rocks. To assess heart rate the subject was connected to a heart rate monitor and to produce the oculocardiac reflex a 20 diopter prism was placed before the right eye. Control data was obtained by use of a plano lens. No significant changes in heart rate were produced by either the prism or the plano lens (t-test for related measures). This suggests that the oculocardiac reflex is not a major problem for normal children doing jump ductions

Does the sex difference in competitiveness decrease in selective sub-populations? A test with intercollegiate distance runners

Sex differences in some preferences and motivations are well established, but it is unclear whether they persist in selective sub-populations, such as expert financial decision makers, top scientists, or elite athletes. We addressed this issue by studying competitiveness in 1,147 varsity intercollegiate distance runners. As expected, across all runners, men reported greater competitiveness with two previously validated instruments, greater competitiveness on a new elite competitiveness scale, and greater training volume, a known correlate of competitiveness. Among faster runners, the sex difference decreased for one measure of competitiveness but did not decrease for the two other competitiveness measures or either measure of training volume. Across NCAA athletic divisions (DI, DII, DIII), the sex difference did not decrease for any competitiveness or training measure. Further analyses showed that these sex differences could not be attributed to women suffering more injuries or facing greater childcare responsibilities. However, women did report greater commitment than men to their academic studies, suggesting a sex difference in priorities. Therefore, policies aiming to provide men and women with equal opportunities to flourish should acknowledge that sex differences in some kinds of preferences and motivation may persist even in selective sub-populations

Sex Differences in Motivation in NCAA Distance Runners

Previous studies indicate that, on average, men are more competitive than women in most sports, including distance running. However, previous studies focused on recreational athletes, not elite ones. We will address this gap in the literature by recruiting several hundred NCAA distance runners to complete online questionnaires regarding their motivation, goals, training, and performance. We predict that male runners will report being more competitive and having a stronger desire to run professionally, whereas female runners will report a stronger interest in starting a non-running career. If these predictions are supported in distance running, a sport where men and women have highly similar professional prospects, it will constitute crucial evidence for the hypothesis that men are more predisposed to achieve in show-off domains such as sports. The show-off hypothesis has important implications for understanding crime, public health, and labor markets