Inorganic fertilization effects on the structure of a calcareous silt loam soil

Inorganic fertilizers have been intensely used in the North China Plain (NCP) to maintain or increase crop yields, but their effects on soil physical properties, especially soil structure, are unclear. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of 12 years of successive application of inorganic fertilization on soil aggregate stability, pore structure and hydraulic properties of a calcareous silt loam soil. A long-term field experiment (2001 -2013) was established at Luancheng Ecosystem Station, NCP. The experiment included three fertilization treatments:(1) inorganic fertilizer, NPK; (2) inorganic fertilizer and organic manure, NPKOM; and (3) a control treatment with no fertilizer, CK. Results showed plots receiving long-term NPK and NPKOM had significantly greater wheat(275% and 307%, respectively)and maize yields (59% and 107%, respectively) than the control. However, the application of inorganic fertilizer significantly decreased aggregate stability and macroporosity, by 55.3% and 36.1%, respectively, relative to the control. No differences in soil organic carbon (SOC), bulk density (BD), saturated conductivity (Ks), and water-holding capacity were found between the NPK and the CK treatments. On the other hand, the addition of organic manure with inorganic fertilizers increased SOC, total porosity, and saturated conductivity by 38.5%, 5.2%, and 75%, respectively compared to the CK treatment. This study indicated inorganic fertilization alone could not improve soil structure of the calcareous silt loam, although it maintained high yields. Use of organic amendments along with inorganic fertilizers can improve soil structure and crop yields

Root anatomical traits contribute to deeper rooting of maize under compacted field conditions

© The Author(s) 2020. To better understand the role of root anatomy in regulating plant adaptation to soil mechanical impedance, 12 maize lines were evaluated in two soils with and without compaction treatments under field conditions. Penetrometer resistance was 1–2 MPa greater in the surface 30 cm of the compacted plots at a water content of 17–20% (v/v). Root thickening in response to compaction varied among genotypes and was negatively associated with rooting depth at one field site under non-compacted plots. Thickening was not associated with rooting depth on compacted plots. Genotypic variation in root anatomy was related to rooting depth. Deeper-rooting plants were associated with reduced cortical cell file number in combination with greater mid cortical cell area for node 3 roots. For node 4, roots with increased aerenchyma were deeper roots. A greater influence of anatomy on rooting depth was observed for the thinner root classes. We found no evidence that root thickening is related to deeper rooting in compacted soil; however, anatomical traits are important, especially for thinner root classes

Potential of geoelectrical methods to monitor root zone processes and structure: a review

Understanding the processes that control mass and energy exchanges between soil, plants and the atmosphere plays a critical role for understanding the root zone system, but it is also beneficial for practical applications such as sustainable agriculture and geotechnics. Improved process understanding demands fast, minimally invasive and cost-effective methods of monitoring the shallow subsurface. Geoelectrical monitoring methods fulfil these criteria and have therefore become of increasing interest to soil scientists. Such methods are particularly sensitive to variations in soil moisture and the presence of root material, both of which are essential drivers for processes and mechanisms in soil and root zone systems. This review analyses the recent use of geoelectrical methods in the soil sciences, and highlights their main achievements in focal areas such as estimating hydraulic properties and delineating root architecture. We discuss the specific advantages and limitations of geoelectrical monitoring in this context. Standing out amongst the latter are the non-uniqueness of inverse model solution and the appropriate choice of pedotransfer functions between electrical parameters and soil properties. The relationship between geoelectrical monitoring and alternative characterization methodologies is also examined. Finally, we advocate for future interdisciplinary research combining models of root hydrology and geoelectrical measurements. This includes the development of more appropriate analogue root electrical models, careful separation between different root zone contributors to the electrical response and integrating spatial and temporal geophysical measurements into plant hydrological models to improve the prediction of root zone development and hydraulic parameters

Extracting multiple interacting root systems using X-ray micro computed tomography

Root system interaction and competition for resources is an active research area that contributes to our understanding of roots’ perception and reaction to environmental conditions. Recent research has shown this complex suite of processes can now be observed in a natural environment (i.e. soil) through the use of X-ray micro Computed Tomography (µCT), which allows non-destructive analysis of plant root systems. Due to their similar X-ray attenuation coefficients and densities, the roots of different plants appear as similar greyscale intensity values in µCT image data. Unless they are manually and carefully traced, it has previously not been possible to automatically label and separate different root systems grown in the same soil environment. We present a technique, based on a visual tracking approach, which exploits knowledge of the shape of root cross-sections to automatically recover 3D descriptions of multiple, interacting root architectures growing in soil from X-ray µCT data. The method was evaluated on both simulated root data and real images of two interacting winter wheat Cordiale (Triticumaestivum L.) plants grown in a single soil column, demonstrating that it is possible to automatically segment different root systems from within the same soil sample. This work supports the automatic exploration of supportive and competitive foraging behaviour of plant root systems in natural soil environments

Assessing the effect of fibre extraction processes on the strength of flax fibre reinforcement

A number of factors impede the direct translation of fibre properties from plant crop species to natural fibre composites. Commercially available fibre extraction processes introduce defects and degrade the mechanical properties of fibres. This study reports on a novel image based approach for investigating the effect of fibre extraction processes on flax fibre bundle strength. X-ray micro Computed Tomography (μCT) was coupled with uniaxial tensile testing to measure the in-situ fibre bundle cross-section area and tensile strength in flax plant stems. The mean tensile strength result was 50% higher than that of the fibres extracted through the standard commercial process. To minimize fibre damage during fibre extraction, a pre-treatment was proposed via saturating flax plant stems in 35% aqueous ammonia solution. By environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), it was evident that ammonia treatment significantly reduced the extent of damage in flax fibre knots and the optimum treatment parameter was identified

X-ray microtomography to evaluate the efficacy of paraffin wax coating for soil bulk density evaluation

The paraffin-coated method is a well-used approach to measure the soil bulk density (BD). BD is a physical property of great importance for studies of soil quality and health. Therefore, representative measurements of this property are highly valued. Resin and paraffin wax are utilized to coat soil samples; however, if these materials ingress into the sample it could affect the representativeness of BD evaluation. The advance in three-dimensional (3D) image analysis techniques such as X-ray microtomography (μCT) offers a great opportunity to visualize and quantify the possible penetration of paraffin wax into clod samples. In this paper we investigated porous system morphological properties of soil samples coated with paraffin wax. The morphological properties of the pores filled with paraffin wax inside the samples were also studied. We observed qualitatively that samples with large pores close to their borders were more susceptible to the penetration of paraffin wax. Samples with pores >10 mm3 had the highest amount of paraffin wax into them. Triaxial shaped and complexly pores also offered less resistance to the ingress of paraffin wax. Positive relations between the amount of paraffin wax inside the samples and the volume of pores measured, pore tortuosity and degree of anisotropy were found. Conversely, the soil pore connectivity was not correlated with the penetration of paraffin wax into the samples, at least for the region of interest (≈27.3 cm3) studied. Finally, an analysis of the impact of paraffin wax ingress inside the samples in measured BD showed increments of ≈0.09 and ≈0.11 g cm−3 in this property when the paraffin wax penetrates into the large pores

Soil strength influences wheat root interactions with soil macropores

Deep rooting is critical for access to water and nutrients found in subsoil. However, damage to soil structure and the natural increase in soil strength with depth, often impedes root penetration. Evidence suggests that roots use macropores (soil cavities greater than 75μm) to bypass strong soil layers. If roots have to exploit structures, a key trait conferring deep rooting will be the ability to locate existing pore networks; a trait called trematotropism.In this study, artificial macropores were created in repacked soil columns at bulk densities of 1.6g cm‐3 and 1.2g cm‐3, representing compact and loose soil. Near isogenic lines of wheat, Rht‐B1a and Rht‐B1c, were planted and root‐macropore interactions were visualized and quantified using X‐ray Computed Tomography.In compact soil, 68.8% of root‐macropore interactions resulted in pore colonisation, compared to 12.5% in loose soil. Changes in root growth trajectory following pore interaction were also quantified, with 21.0% of roots changing direction (±3°) in loose soil compared to 76.0% in compact soil.These results indicate colonisation of macropores is an important strategy of wheat roots in compacted subsoil. Management practices to reduce subsoil compaction and encourage macropore formation could offer significant advantage in helping wheat roots penetrate deeper into subsoil

On the evaluation of methods for the recovery of plant root systems from X-ray computed tomography images

X-ray micro computed tomography (µCT) allows non-destructive visualisation of plant root systems within their soil environment and thus offers an alternative to commonly used destructive methodologies for the examination of plant roots and their interaction with the surrounding soil. Various methods for the recovery of root system information from X-ray CT image data have been presented in the literature. Detailed, ideally quantitative, evaluation is essential, in order to determine the accuracy and limitations of the proposed methods, and to allow potential users to make informed choices between them. This, however, is a complicated task. Three-dimensional ground truth data is expensive to produce, and the complexity of X-ray CT data means that manually generated ground truth may not be definitive. Similarly, artificially generated data is not entirely representative of real samples. The aims of this work are to raise awareness of the evaluation problem and to propose experimental approaches that allow the performance of root extraction methods to be assessed, ultimately improving the techniques available. To illustrate the issues, tests are conducted using both artificially generated images and real data samples

To what extent can zero tillage lead to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from temperate soils?

Soil tillage practices have a profound influence on the physical properties of soil and the greenhouse gas (GHG) balance. However there have been very few integrated studies on the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) and soil biophysical and chemical characteristics under different soil management systems. We recorded a significantly higher net global warming potential under conventional tillage systems (26–31% higher than zero tillage systems). Crucially the 3-D soil pore network, imaged using X-ray Computed Tomography, modified by tillage played a significant role in the flux of CO2 and CH4. In contrast, N2O flux was determined mainly by microbial biomass carbon and soil moisture content. Our work indicates that zero tillage could play a significant role in minimising emissions of GHGs from soils and contribute to efforts to mitigate against climate change