Tradeoffs in the externalities of pig production are not inevitable

Farming externalities are believed to co-vary negatively, yet trade-offs have rarely been quantified systematically. Here we present data from UK and Brazilian pig production systems representative of most commercial systems across the world ranging from ‘intensive’ indoor systems through to extensive free range, Organic and woodland systems to explore co-variation among four major externality costs. We found that no specific farming type was consistently associated with good performance across all domains. Generally, systems with low land use have low greenhouse gas emissions but high antimicrobial use and poor animal welfare, and vice versa. Some individual systems performed well in all domains but were not exclusive to any particular type of farming system. Our findings suggest that trade-offs may be avoidable if mitigation focuses on lowering impacts within system types rather than simply changing types of farming

Females with insured welfare mitigate the negative impact of male pre- copulation stress on offspring

Os sistemas suinícolas atuais, aliados aos programas de melhoramento genético avançados, trouxeram inúmeros ganhos produtivos e sanitários para a indústria. O repertório comportamental natural da espécie, importante para manter o bem-estar dos animais, é raramente priorizado nos sistemas de produção comercial de suínos. Em consequência disso, comportamentos anormais, alterações fisiológicas e emocionais, e indicadores de bem-estar comprometido são frequentemente observados. Esses comportamentos são uma tentativa dos animais de adaptação ao meio onde estão inseridos, e os sistemas emocionais 'básicos' dos animais têm funções adaptativas e fundamentais para o indivíduo. O alojamento de machos reprodutores suínos desafia o bem-estar dos mesmos pela restrição de movimento, isolamento social e falta de enriquecimento ambiental. Estudos recentes em animais de laboratório indicam que situações de estresse nos machos podem alterar características no sêmen e alterar as características da prole. O objetivo da pesquisa foi estudar o efeito do sistema de alojamento de machos suínos sobre a emocionalidade da sua prole. Foram utilizados 18 machos alojados em três sistemas: cela (C:N=6), baia (B:N=6) e baia enriquecida com o fornecimento de feno, escovação, banho (E:N=6). Submetidos à colheita de sêmen semanalmente. Na quarta semana, três pools de sêmen, cada pool representando todos os três tratamentos, com dois machos de cada tratamento (C, B e E), selecionados de acordo com métodos objetivos de avaliação do sêmen, foram utilizados para inseminar 15 marrãs alojadas em grupo no sistema ao ar livre. Foram realizadas avalições comportamentais e fisiológicas a cada terço gestacional. Os leitões foram identificados no terceiro dia de idade e seus pesos registrados aos 10°, 25° e 29° dias de idade. No 25° dia, foram realizadas as avaliações emocionais dos leitões (medo e ansiedade) (N=138) através do comportamento gravado durante os testes de campo aberto, objeto novo e labirinto em cruz elevada. No 29° dia, os leitões foram desmamados (N=138) e reagrupados por peso em três baias com feno. Imagens corporais dos leitões (N=138) foram registradas no desmame e nos quatro dias subsequentes para contabilizar as lesões de pele. No 34° dia, eles foram submetidos à avaliação nociceptiva, estimulados duas vezes consecutivas do lado direito e esquerdo da região coxofemoral e quartela. Após, amostras de pelo foram colhidas para realização do teste de paternidade. Após o recebimento dos dados de paternidade, os leitões foram alocados nos tratamentos representando o alojamento dos pais (C, B e E). Os dados comportamentais das fêmeas foram avaliados com estatística descritiva. Na análise dos dados da prole utilizou-se a análise fatorial com o intuito de resumir em quatro fatores latentes a informação relativa à variabilidade e correlações entre as variáveis. Os escores fatoriais foram classificados como negativos, centrais e positivos, com base no primeiro e terceiro quartis. O teste de qui quadrado (alfa=0,05) foi usado para testar a homogeneidade da distribuição desses escores nos três tratamentos a que os machos foram submetidos. Uma análise de correspondência buscou associações entre as frequências de leitões nos tratamentos e categorias dos escores fatoriais. Os resultados da prole indicam a influência do ambiente herdado através dos machos; os leitões filhos de machos alojados com acesso ao enriquecimento tiveram menor número de lesões de pele (p=0,008). Leitões oriundos de machos alojados em celas apresentaram valores nociceptivos mais hipoalgésicos, em contrapartida, a prole de machos alojados nas baias sem enriquecimento foram menos hipoalgésicos (p=0,029). Compreender o mecanismo de ação de tais alterações requer futuras pesquisas associando os princípios da epigenética e sua interação na construção do comportamento animal.Current pig production systems, combined with advanced genetic improvement programs, have brought numerous productive and health gains to the industry. However, the species\' natural behavioral repertoire, which is important for maintaining good animal welfare, is rarely prioritized in commercial pig production systems. As a result, abnormal behaviors, physiological and emotional changes, all indicators of impaired welfare, are often observed. These behaviors are an attempt by animals to adapt to the environment in which they live, and the 'basic' emotional systems of animals have adaptive and fundamental functions for the individual. The housing of boars challenges their welfare as a result of movement restriction, social isolation and lack of environmental enrichment. Recent studies in laboratory animals indicate that stressful situations in males can alter characteristics in the semen and change the phenotype of their offspring. Eighteen males housed in three systems were studied: crate (C:N=6), pen (P:N=6), and enriched pen, which included the supply of hay, brushing and bathing (E:N=6). Animals were submitted to semen collection weekly. In the fourth week, three pools of semen, each pool representing two males per treatment (C, P and E), matched for objective semen quality indicators, from the animals of the three treatments was used to inseminate 15 gilts, five gilts for each different pool. Gilts were housed in group in an outdoor system. Behavioral and physiological evaluations were carried out at each third of gestation. The piglets, offspring of 13 gilts, were identified on the third day of age and their weights recorded at the 10th, 25th, and 29th days of age. On the 25th day, the piglets\' emotional assessments (fear and anxiety) were carried out through the behavior recorded during the tests open field, novel object, and elevated plus maze (N=138). On the 29th day, the piglets were weaned and regrouped by weight in three pens with hay. Body images of the piglets (N=138) were recorded at weaning and in the subsequent four days to account for skin lesions (N=138). On the 34th day, they were submitted to a nociceptive evaluation, stimulated twice in a row on the right and left side of the plantar surface of the metacarpal and hip region. Afterward, hair samples were taken to perform the paternity test. After receiving the results of the paternity tests, the piglets were allocated to the experimental groups representing the treatments applied to the boars (C, P and E). The behavioral data of the females were evaluated for descriptive statistical. In the analysis of the offspring data, factor analysis was used to summarize the information regarding the variability and correlations between the variables in four latent factors. The factor scores were classified as negative, central, and positive, based on the first and third quartiles. The chi-square test (alpha=0.05) was used to test the homogeneity of the distribution of these scores in the three treatments to which the males were submitted. A correspondence analysis sought associations between the frequencies of piglets in the treatments and categories of factor scores. The offspring results indicate the influence of the environment inherited through males; piglets born to males housed with access to enrichment had fewer skin lesions (p=0.008). Piglets from males housed in cells showed nociceptive values more hypoalgesic, in contrast, the offspring of males housed in pens without enrichment were less hypoalgesic (p=0.029). Understanding the mechanism of action of such changes requires further research associating the principles of epigenetics and their interaction in the construction of animal behavior

Lameness in sows during pregnancy impacts welfare outcomes in their offspring

Lameness in sows is a painful and common condition, affecting between 30- 60% of sows, according to recent data. The stress and the pain experienced by lame sows causes unfavorable scenarios not only for pregnant animals, but also for their offspring, possibly due to glucocorticoid-mediated effects on fetal programming. The objectives of this study are to assess the behavioral, emotional and physiological effects of sow lameness in their offspring. This study was carried out in a Brazilian commercial pig farm, studying sows and piglets, with follow up experiments performed, with the same piglets, at the University of São Paulo, Brazil. The protocol was reviewed by the Ethics and Animal Use Committee (protocol number 9870211117). Gait score was assessed in 582 pregnant sows, every 15 days, over a period of 4 months, using a validated scoring system (0 to 5, being 0 a sow without lameness and 5 a sow with severe lameness). Out of the 582 sows, 30 animals, 15 sows without lameness (group A: score 0 or 1) and 15 sows with lameness (group B: score 3 to 5), were selected, for the follow up study monitoring their offspring. From each of these sows, three piglets were studied (90 piglets in total). Piglets were weaned at 28 days, transported to the University Campus, housed in pens with 9 individuals, divided in groups by sex, weight and lameness score of their mother (A or B). The following data were obtained from the piglets: body photographs to count skin lesions (three days); behavior in the open field and novel object tests were performed three days after weaning, and nociception measures were taken with an electronic von Frey aesthesiometer in four body parts: left and right plantar pad (LPP and RPP); and left and right leg (LL and RL). Data were analyzed using t-test or the Wilcoxon test at a significance level of 0.05 in the programming language R. 91.41% of the 582 sows had at least one event of lameness, 37.46% were classified as Group A, and 62.54% scored as group B. Sows with lameness had fewer days of pregnancy than sows without lameness (P<0.0005), 115 and 116 days respectively. Piglets from lame sows vocalized more than piglets from sows without lameness when they were subjected to the novel object test. Piglets from lame sows responded numerically to higher pressures in all body parts in the nociception test than piglets born from sows without lameness. This was confirmed by the means values: group A-LPP=893.44 g; group B-LPP=1,007.26 g; group A-RPP=916.28 g; group B-RPP=997.11 g; group A-LL=896.35 g; group B-LL=981.99 g; group A-RL=961.58 g; group B-RL=974.12 g; (P>0.05). Lameness appeared to modify the nociceptive threshold of the offspring, suggesting an increase in pain tolerance of piglets from lame sows. Additionally, lameness in sows decreased pregnancy length. The results confirm the impact of lameness in altering behavior and welfare outcomes in piglets

Tradeoffs and co-benefits in the sustainability of pork production

Livestock production generates substantial impacts. Despite a widespread perception that different externalities of farming systems typically co-vary negatively, such tradeoffs have rarely been quantified systematically. We collected data from diverse UK and Brazilian pig systems representative of most commercial systems across the world to explore, for the first time, the co-variation among four major externality costs simultaneously: land use, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, antimicrobial use (AMU) and animal welfare. We find both positive associations and tradeoffs: generally, systems with low land use have low GHGs, but high AMU and poor welfare, and vice versa. Despite these overall associations, some individual systems perform well in all domains. These systems show that tradeoffs, commonly perceived to be inevitable, are in fact not. These promising systems are not limited to a particular type of farming (e.g., label or husbandry type). However, no farming type was consistently associated with good performance in all domains.H.B. was supported by the BBSRC DTP at the University of Cambridge (BB/M011194/1); A.B. was supported by a Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit award (WM160065); M.H. was supported by the MRC (MR/N002660/1); and J.W. was supported by The Alborada Trust

Trade-offs in the externalities of pig production are not inevitable.

Acknowledgements: H.B. was supported by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council Doctoral Training Partnership at the University of Cambridge (BB/M011194/1) and is a part of the Future of Food program at the Oxford Martin School; A.B. was supported by a Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit award (WM160065); M.A.H. was supported by the Medical Research Council (MR/N002660/1); and J.L.N.W. was supported by The Alborada Trust. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript. We are grateful to all the farmers who participated in this study and everyone who helped us in recruiting them. We cannot state your names to retain anonymity, but this study would not have been possible without you.Funder: The Alborada TrustFarming externalities are believed to co-vary negatively, yet trade-offs have rarely been quantified systematically. Here we present data from UK and Brazilian pig production systems representative of most commercial systems across the world ranging from 'intensive' indoor systems through to extensive free range, Organic and woodland systems to explore co-variation among four major externality costs. We found that no specific farming type was consistently associated with good performance across all domains. Generally, systems with low land use have low greenhouse gas emissions but high antimicrobial use and poor animal welfare, and vice versa. Some individual systems performed well in all domains but were not exclusive to any particular type of farming system. Our findings suggest that trade-offs may be avoidable if mitigation focuses on lowering impacts within system types rather than simply changing types of farming

Tradeoffs in the externalities of pig production are not inevitable

Data on the land-use, greenhouse-gas, animal-welfare and antimicrobial-use costs of contrasting UK and Brazilian pig systems

Lameness in Pregnant Sows Alters Placental Stress Response

Pregnant sows from commercial pig farms may experience painful states, such as lameness, an essential indicator in assessing sow welfare. We investigated the effect of lameness during the last third of pregnancy on reproductive performance and placental glucocorticoid concentrations in sows. Periodic locomotion assessments were carried out on two commercial pig farms using a validated 0-5 scoring system (from 0: normal locomotion; to 5: a downer animal). Sows from both farms (N = 511) were grouped based on their average locomotion scores. On Farm 1, 30 sows were selected and grouped as either Not Lame (NL = 16; X¯ = 0-1) or Lame (L = 14; X¯ > 1). On Farm 2, 39 sows were selected and grouped as either Not Lame (G1 = 12; X¯ = 0-1), Moderately Lame (G2 = 13; X¯ = 1.1-2), or Severely Lame (G3 = 14; X¯ ≥ 2.1). Reproductive data (gestation length, litter weight, average piglet weight, litter size, and the number of piglets born alive/mummified/stillborn) were recorded on both farms. Moreover, on Farm 2, piglet intrauterine growth restriction score and the number of piglets dead during the first week were also recorded, and placenta samples were collected to determine their cortisol/cortisone concentrations. A linear mixed model was used to analyze the data. The proportion of lameness in pregnant sows (N = 511) was >40%, and the gestation length tended to decrease with the presence of lameness (p< 0.1) in both farms. G2 sows had a higher placental cortisol/cortisone ratio than G1 and G3 sows (p< 0.01). In conclusion, lameness was high in the sows assessed, which may decrease sow gestation length and reduce placental efficiency in protecting the offspring from the sows\u27 stress response