Carbonyl sulfide and carbon disulfide: Large-scale distributions over the western Pacific and emissions from Asia during TRACE-P

An extensive set of carbonyl sulfide (OCS) and carbon disulfide (CS 2) observations were made as part of the NASA Transport and Chemical Evolution over the Pacific (TRACE-P) project, which took place in the early spring 2001. TRACE-P sampling focused on the western Pacific region but in total included the geographic region 110°E to 290°E longitude, 5°N to 50°N latitude, and 0-12 km altitude. Substantial OCS and CS2 enhancements were observed for a great many air masses of Chinese and Japanese origin during TRACE-P. Over the western Pacific, mean mixing ratios of long-lived OCS and shorter-lived CS2 showed a gradual decrease by about 10% and a factor of 5-10, respectively, from the surface to 8-10 km altitude, presumably because land-based sources dominated their distribution during February through April 2001. The highest mean OCS and CS 2 levels (580 and 20 pptv, respectively, based on 2.5° × 2.5° latitude bins) were observed below 2 km near the coast of Asia, at latitudes between 25°N and 35°N, where urban Asian outflow was strongest. Ratios of OCS versus CO for continental SE Asia were much lower compared to Chinese and Japanese signatures and were strongly associated with biomass burning/biofuel emissions. We present a new inventory of anthropogenic Asian emissions (including biomass burning) for OCS and CS2 and compare it to emission estimates based on regional relationships of OCS and CS 2 to CO and CO2. The OCS and CS2 results for the two methods compare well for continental SE Asia and Japan plus Korea and also for Chinese CS2 emissions. However, it appears that the inventory underestimates Chinese emissions of OCS by about 30-100%. This difference may be related to the fact that we did not include natural sources such as wetland emissions in our inventory, although the contributions from such sources are believed to be at a seasonal low during the study period. Uncertainties in OCS emissions from Chinese coal burning, which are poorly characterized, likely contribute to the discrepancy. Copyright 2004 by the American Geophysical Union

Seasonal differences in the photochemistry of the South Pacific: A comparison of observations and model results from PEM-Tropics A and B

A time-dependent photochemical box model is used to examine the photochemistry of the equatorial and southern subtropical Pacific troposphere with aircraft data obtained during two distinct seasons: the Pacific Exploratory Mission-Tropics A (PEM-Tropics A) field campaign in September and October of 1996 and the Pacific Exploratory Mission-Tropics B (PEM-Tropics B) campaign in March and April of 1999. Model-predicted values were compared to observations for selected species (e.g., NO2, OH, HO2) with generally good agreement. Predicted values of HO2 were larger than those observed in the upper troposphere, in contrast to previous studies which show a general underprediction of HO2 at upper altitudes. Some characteristics of the budgets of HOx, NOx, and peroxides are discussed. The integrated net tendency for O3 is negative over the remote Pacific during both seasons, with gross formation equal to no more than half of the gross destruction. This suggests that a continual supply of O3 into the Pacific region throughout the year must exist in order to maintain O3 levels. Integrated net tendencies for equatorial O3 showed a seasonality, with a net loss of 1.06×1011 molecules cm-2 s-1 during PEM-Tropics B (March) increasing by 50% to 1.60×1011 molecules cm-2 s-1 during PEM-Tropics A (September). The seasonality over the southern subtropical Pacific was somewhat lower, with losses of 1.21×1011 molecules cm-2 s-1 during PEM-Tropics B (March) increasing by 25% to 1.51×1011 molecules cm-2 s-1 during PEM-Tropics A (September). While the larger net losses during PEM-Tropics A were primarily driven by higher concentrations of O3, the ability of the subtropical atmosphere to destroy O3 was ∼30% less effective during the PEM-Tropics A (September) campaign due to a drier atmosphere and higher overhead O3 column amounts. Copyright 2001 by the American Geophysical Union

Model study of tropospheric trace species distributions during PEM-West A

A three-dimensional mesoscale transport/photochemical model is used to study the transport and photochemical transformation of trace species over eastern Asia and western Pacific for the period from September 20 to October 6, 1991, of the Pacific Exploratory Mission-West A experiment. The influence of emissions from the continental boundary layer that was evident in the observed trace species distributions in the lower troposphere over the ocean is well simulated by the model. In the upper troposphere, species such as O3, NOy (total reactive nitrogen species), and SO2 which have a significant source in the stratosphere are also simulated well in the model, suggesting that the upper tropospheric abundances of these species are strongly influenced by stratospheric fluxes and upper tropospheric sources. In the case of SO2 the stratospheric flux is identified to be mostly from the Mount Pinatubo eruption. Concentrations in the upper troposphere for species such as CO and hydrocarbons, which are emitted in the continental boundary layer and have a sink in the troposphere, are significantly underestimated by the model. Two factors have been identified to contribute significantly to the underestimate: one is emissions upwind of the model domain (eastern Asia and western Pacific); the other is that vertical transport is underestimated in the model. Model results are also grouped by back trajectories to study the contrast between compositions of marine and continental air masses. The model-calculated altitude profiles of trace species in continental and marine air masses are found to be qualitatively consistent with observations. However, the difference in the median values of trace species between continental air and marine air is about twice as large for the observed values as for model results. This suggests that the model underestimates the outflow fluxes of trace species from the Asian continent and the Pacific rim countries to the ocean. Observed altitude profiles for species like CO and hydrocarbons show a negative gradient in continental air and a positive gradient in marine air. A mechanism which may be responsible for the altitude gradients is proposed

Large-scale air mass characteristics observed over the remote tropical Pacific Ocean during March-April 1999: Results from PEM-Tropics B field experiment

Eighteen long-range flights over the Pacific Ocean between 38° S to 20° N and 166° E to 90° W were made by the NASA DC-8 aircraft during the NASA Pacific Exploratory Mission (PEM) Tropics B conducted from March 6 to April 18, 1999. Two lidar systems were flown on the DC-8 to remotely measure vertical profiles of ozone (O3), water vapor (H2O), aerosols, and clouds from near the surface to the upper troposphere along their flight track. In situ measurements of a wide range of gases and aerosols were made on the DC-8 for comprehensive characterization of the air and for correlation with the lidar remote measurements. The transition from northeasterly flow of Northern Hemispheric (NH) air on the northern side of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to generally easterly flow of Southern Hemispheric (SH) air south of the ITCZ was accompanied by a significant decrease in O3, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and aerosols and an increase in H2O. Trajectory analyses indicate that air north of the ITCZ came from Asia and/or the United States, while the air south of the ITCZ had a long residence time over the Pacific, perhaps originating over South America several weeks earlier. Air south of the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) came rapidly from the west originating over Australia or Africa. This air had enhanced O3 and aerosols and an associated decrease in H2O. Average latitudinal and longitudinal distributions of O3 and H2O were constructed from the remote and in situ O3 and H2O data, and these distributions are compared with results from PEM-Tropics A conducted in August-October 1996. During PEM-Tropics B, low O3 air was found in the SH across the entire Pacific Basin at low latitudes. This was in strong contrast to the photochemically enhanced O3 levels found across the central and eastern Pacific low latitudes during PEM-Tropics A. Nine air mass types were identified for PEM-Tropics B based on their O3, aerosols, clouds, and potential vorticity characteristics. The data from each flight were binned by altitude according to air mass type, and these results showed the relative observational frequency of the different air masses as a function of altitude in seven regions over the Pacific. The average chemical composition of the major air mass types was determined from in situ measurements in the NH and SH, and these results provided insight into the origin, lifetime, and chemistry of the air in these regions. Copyright 2001 by the American Geophysical Union

Impacts of biomass burning in Southeast Asia on ozone and reactive nitrogen over the western Pacific in spring

Aircraft measurements of ozone (O3) and its precursors (reactive nitrogen, CO, nonmethane hydrocarbons) were made over the western Pacific during the Transport and Chemical Evolution Over the Pacific (TRACE-P) campaign, which was conducted during February-April 2001. Biomass burning activity was high over Southeast Asia (SEA) during this period (dry season), and convective activity over SEA frequently transported air from the boundary layer to the free troposphere, followed by eastward transport to the sampling region over the western Pacific south of 30°N. This data set allows for systematic investigations of the chemical and physical processes in the outflow from SEA. Methyl chloride (CH3Cl) and CO are chosen as primary and secondary tracers, respectively, to gauge the degree of the impact of emissions of trace species from biomass burning. Biomass burning is found to be a major source of reactive nitrogen (NO x, PAN, HNO3, and nitrate) and O3 in this region from correlations of these species with the tracers. Changes in the abundance of reactive nitrogen during upward transport are quantified from the altitude change of the slopes of the correlations of these species with CO. NOx decreased with altitude due to its oxidation to HNO3. On the other hand, PAN was conserved during transport from the lower to the middle troposphere, consistent with its low water solubility and chemical stability at low temperatures. Large losses of HNO3 and nitrate, which are highly water soluble, occurred in the free troposphere, most likely due to wet removal by precipitation. This has been shown to be the major pathway of NOy loss in the middle troposphere. Increases in the mixing ratios of O3 and its precursors due to biomass burning in SEA are estimated using the tracers. Enhancements of CO and total reactive nitrogen (NOy), which are directly emitted from biomass burning, were largest at 2-4 km. At this altitude the increases in NOy and O3 were 810 parts per trillion by volume (pptv) and 26 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) above their background values of 240 pptv and 31 ppbv, respectively. The slope of the O3-CO correlation in biomass burning plumes was similar to those observed in fire plumes in northern Australia, Africa, and Canada. The O3 production efficiency (OPE) derived from the O3-CO slope and NOx/CO emission ratio (ER) is shown to be positively correlated with the C2H4 /NOx ER, indicating that the C2H4/NO x ER is a critical parameter in determining the OPE. Comparison of the net O3 flux across the western Pacific region and total O3 production due to biomass burning in SEA suggests that about 70% of O3 produced was transported to the western Pacific. Copyright 2004 by the American Geophysical Union

Core components for effective infection prevention and control programmes: new WHO evidence-based recommendations

Abstract Health care-associated infections (HAI) are a major public health problem with a significant impact on morbidity, mortality and quality of life. They represent also an important economic burden to health systems worldwide. However, a large proportion of HAI are preventable through effective infection prevention and control (IPC) measures. Improvements in IPC at the national and facility level are critical for the successful containment of antimicrobial resistance and the prevention of HAI, including outbreaks of highly transmissible diseases through high quality care within the context of universal health coverage. Given the limited availability of IPC evidence-based guidance and standards, the World Health Organization (WHO) decided to prioritize the development of global recommendations on the core components of effective IPC programmes both at the national and acute health care facility level, based on systematic literature reviews and expert consensus. The aim of the guideline development process was to identify the evidence and evaluate its quality, consider patient values and preferences, resource implications, and the feasibility and acceptability of the recommendations. As a result, 11 recommendations and three good practice statements are presented here, including a summary of the supporting evidence, and form the substance of a new WHO IPC guideline