Plant species selection by goats foraging on montane semi-natural grasslands and grazable forestlands in the Italian Alps

The interest for goats rearing has increased during last decades on the Italian Alps. However, feeding preferences by grazing goats have not undergone detailed investigation in extensive montane grazing systems. Our study aimed to assess plant species selection by integrating vegetation surveys with animal GPS tracking under two contrasting alpine vegetation communities: a semi-natural grassland (SG) and a grazable forestland (GF). Goats selected a high array of plant species (56 and 47 species in the SG and GF, respectively), but most of their diet was composed by a few species (ten species accounted for 95% and 91% of the total species intake in the SG and GF, respectively). The selection by goats seemed to be more species-dependent rather than functional group-dependent. Goats appeared to be less selective within a homogeneous herbaceous grassland, because they selected plant species proportionally to their abundance (P=0.05). Conversely, in a heterogeneous and stratified grazable forestland they showed a more pronounced preference for most of the browse species, regardless of species abundance. Plant species selection was positively correlated with species height in both vegetation communities (<em>i.e.</em>, implementation of different stocking rates and densities) could be an important tool in modifying diet selection, promoting the consumption of particular plant species and thus managing the dynamics of plant communities in alpine environments

Logic Characterization of Invisibly Structured Languages: The Case of Floyd Languages

Operator precedence grammars define a classical Boolean and deterministic context-free language family (called Floyd languages or FLs). FLs have been shown to strictly include the well-known Visibly Pushdown Languages, and enjoy the same nice closure properties. In this paper we provide a complete characterization of FLs in terms of a suitable Monadic Second-Order Logic. Traditional approaches to logic characterization of formal languages refer explicitly to the structures over which they are interpreted - e.g, trees or graphs - or to strings that are isomorphic to the structure, as in parenthesis languages. In the case of FLs, instead, the syntactic structure of input strings is “invisible” and must be reconstructed through parsing. This requires that logic formulae encode some typical context-free parsing actions, such as shift-reduce ones