英語の疑問表現学習上の問題点

This paper is to be understood as one of a series of inquiries into the problems possible met by Japanese students in learning English, with special regard to what influences their mother tongue will exert on their study, on the assumption that the knowledge of a language already obtained might cause some or other conflicts in their new efforts to acquire a second language. This paper aims at guessing the possible conflicts created by the similarities and differences between Japanese and English, limiting the discussion to the case of learning English interrogative expressions. The items to be considered will be as follows : - 1. Logic of Interrogative Expressions 2. Forms of English Interrogative Expressions 3. Forms of Japanese Interrogative Expressions 4. Yes-No Questions 5. Alternative Questions 6. Tag-Questions 7. X Questions 8. Indirect Questions 9. Pseudo Questions 10. Double Questions, Incomplete Questions, etc. 11. Verificatio

英語の Modals 学習上の問題点

We must frankly admit that the "transfer theory", on which some fundamental ideas of contrastive linguistics are based, is currently in disrepute among many psychologists. Moreover, it might be a gross oversimplification simply to assert that prior learning affects subsequent learning, positively when the learning tasks coincide and negatively when they differ. However, we so often come across cases where structural differences and similarities between a learner\u27s native and target languages are too obviously reflected in the way he learns the latter and uses it, that we can hardly deny the validity of the theory. The reason why the scientific and practical results of work in this field have not matched early expectations, might be found in the fact that the causes of errors were exclusively sought in this psychological aspect. We should remember there are a variety of factors which influence the process of learning. For example, an investigation of errors reported by some teachers of English referred not only to errors based on the overgeneralization of patterns learned earlier, but also to errors based on incomplete acquisition of such patterns and failure to recognize semantic distinction. Errors of this type, some linguists argue, are often more appropriately viewed positively, as reflecting creative strategies of the learner aimed at discovering the grammatical structure of the target language. This reveals the innate competence of the learner for language acquisition, and the teacher should adapt his strategies to those of the learner. Therefore the attribution of interference then becomes another problem, that of whether the interference represents influence from the native language or from earlier-acquired knowledge of the target language. Thus far I have made a series of investigations, taking as a basis the former, in other words, to determine what influence a learner\u27s mother tongue will exert on his learning of English. They are intended to provide the teacher with useful information for more efficient and effective teaching strategies. This time my inquiry will be focused on the learning of Modals in English. As the Japanese language lacks the exact counterparts of English Modals, "translation equivalence" will be used as a criterion. The items to be discussed are as follows : -I. Ambiguity in the meaning of English Modals II. Syntactic features of Modals III. Semantic features of Modals IV. Japanese "translation equivalence" of Modals V. Syntactic restraints on Modals VI. Modals and Negation VII. Modals and Tenses VIII. Quasi-modals IX. Verificatio

Performance of high-magnesium cultivars of three cool-season grasses grown in nutrient solution culture

Breeding for high magnesium (Mg) concentrations pas been conducted for several forage species. Mgwell, Magnet, and HiMag are the first experimental strains, bred for increased Mg concentrations of orchardgrass, Italian ryegrass, and tall fescue, respectively. This experiment compared the performance and genetic variability of these high-Mg cultivars grown in solution culture with other cultivars in each species. Three mineral absorption experiments were carried, out with one month aged seedlings. Seedlings were evaluated for shoot dry weight, uptake and concentration of Mg, calcium (Ca), and potassium (K), and also the density of these minerals in the shoot. The cultivars of different species behaved differently among the experiments even though the over all environmental condition was kept similar. The high-Mg cultivars showed higher Mg uptake per plant, but the differences were not so distinct. However, the trend in Mg concentration among the cultivars of different species was similar, and the difference between high-Mg cultivars and control cultivars was distinct. The Mg density in the shoot of these cultivars was significantly high. Also the high-Mg cultivars showed lower equivalent ratio, K/(Ca+Mg). Genotypic differences in high-Mg cultivars with others could be distinctly explained by differences in Mg concentration and Mg density in the shoot, which coupled with low K/(Ca + Mg) ratio. These common properties of high-Mg cultivars might be considered as a good parameter for screening

Neurotrophin receptors expression and JNK pathway activation in human astrocytomas

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Neurotrophins are growth factors that regulate cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis in the nervous system. Their diverse actions are mediated through two different transmembrane – receptor signaling systems: Trk receptor tyrosine kinases (TrkA, TrkB, TrkC) and p75^NTRneurotrophin receptor. Trk receptors promote cell survival and differentiation while p75^NTRinduces, in most cases, the activity of JNK-p53-Bax apoptosis pathway or suppresses intracellular survival signaling cascades. Robust Trk activation blocks p75^NTR-induced apoptosis by suppressing the JNK-p53-Bax pathway. The aim of this exploratory study was to investigate the expression levels of neurotrophin receptors, Trks and p75^NTR, and the activation of JNK pathway in human astrocytomas and in adjacent non-neoplastic brain tissue.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded serial sections from 33 supratentorial astrocytomas (5 diffuse fibrillary astrocytomas, WHO grade II; 6 anaplastic astrocytomas, WHO grade III; 22 glioblastomas multiforme, WHO grade IV) were immunostained following microwave pretreatment. Polyclonal antibodies against TrkA, TrkB, TrkC and monoclonal antibodies against p75^NTRand phosphorylated forms of JNK (pJNK) and c-Jun (pc-Jun) were used. The labeling index (LI), defined as the percentage of positive (labeled) cells out of the total number of tumor cells counted, was determined.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Moderate to strong, granular cytoplasmic immunoreactivity for TrkA, TrkB and TrkC receptors was detected in greater than or equal to 10% of tumor cells in the majority of tumors independently of grade; on the contrary, p75^NTRreceptor expression was found in a small percentage of tumor cells (~1%) in some tumors. The endothelium of tumor capillaries showed conspicuous immunoreactivity for TrkB receptor. Trk immunoreactivity seemed to be localized in some neurons and astrocytes in non-neoplastic tissue. Phosphorylated forms of JNK (pJNK) and c-Jun (pc-Jun) were significantly co-expressed in a tumor grade-dependent manner (p < 0.05). Interestingly, a statistically significant (p < 0.05) reverse relationship between Trk receptors LIs and pc-Jun/pJNK LIs was noted in some glioblastomas multiforme.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>In the context of astrocytomas, Trk receptors (TrkA, TrkB, TrkC) expression may promote tumor growth independently of grade. Furthermore, activation of JNK pathway may contribute to progression towards malignancy. Considering the fact that regional tumor heterogeneity may be a limiting factor for immunohistochemical studies, the significance of the reverse relationship between Trk receptors and pc-Jun/pJNK LIs with respect to biological behavior of human astrocytomas requires further evaluation.</p

Measuring serotonin synthesis: from conventional methods to PET tracers and their (pre)clinical implications

The serotonergic system of the brain is complex, with an extensive innervation pattern covering all brain regions and endowed with at least 15 different receptors (each with their particular distribution patterns), specific reuptake mechanisms and synthetic processes. Many aspects of the functioning of the serotonergic system are still unclear, partially because of the difficulty of measuring physiological processes in the living brain. In this review we give an overview of the conventional methods of measuring serotonin synthesis and methods using positron emission tomography (PET) tracers, more specifically with respect to serotonergic function in affective disorders. Conventional methods are invasive and do not directly measure synthesis rates. Although they may give insight into turnover rates, a more direct measurement may be preferred. PET is a noninvasive technique which can trace metabolic processes, like serotonin synthesis. Tracers developed for this purpose are α-[11C]methyltryptophan ([11C]AMT) and 5-hydroxy-L-[β-11C]tryptophan ([11C]5-HTP). Both tracers have advantages and disadvantages. [11C]AMT can enter the kynurenine pathway under inflammatory conditions (and thus provide a false signal), but this tracer has been used in many studies leading to novel insights regarding antidepressant action. [11C]5-HTP is difficult to produce, but trapping of this compound may better represent serotonin synthesis. AMT and 5-HTP kinetics are differently affected by tryptophan depletion and changes of mood. This may indicate that both tracers are associated with different enzymatic processes. In conclusion, PET with radiolabelled substrates for the serotonergic pathway is the only direct way to detect changes of serotonin synthesis in the living brain