HIF-1alpha and infectious diseases: a new frontier for the development of new therapies

The aim of this review is to show the significant role of HIF-1alpha in inflammatory and infectious diseases. Hypoxia is a physiological characteristic of a wide range of diseases from cancer to infection. Cellular hypoxia is sensed by oxygen-sensitive hydrolase enzymes, which control the protein stability of hypoxia-inducible factor alpha 1 (HIF-1alpha) transcription factors. When stabilized, HIF-1alpha binds with its cofactors to HIF-responsive elements (HREs) in the promoters of target genes to organize a broad ranging transcriptional program in response to the hypoxic environment. HIF-1alpha also plays a regulatory function in response to a diversity of molecular signals of infection and inflammation even under normoxic conditions. HIF-1alpha is stimulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines, growth factors and a wide range of infections. Its induction is a general element of the host response to infection. In this review, we also discuss recent advances in knowledge on HIF-1alpha and inflammatory responses, as well as its direct influence in infectious diseases caused by bacteria, virus, protozoan parasites and fungi

Measurement of peripheral blood mononuclear cells producing IFN-Gamma in patients with tuberculosis

The type of immune response induced by tuberculosis (Th1 or Th2) and its correlation with the clinical outcome is unclear. We studied 13 patients with active tuberculosis (TBC). The peripheral blood mononuclear cells producing IFN-gamma (PBMC-IG) were measured by enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) technique. The control group had ten healthy individuals vaccinated against tuberculosis. We collected blood samples of each patient in two moments: a) in the hospital admission without treatment (TBC1); b) after seven to 20 days of treatment (TBC2). The comparison of the spots forming units of PBMC-IG between TBC group and controls showed that there was a significant difference between TBC1 and control group (p < 0.001) and between TBC2 and control group (p < 0.005), but there was no difference between TBC1 and TBC2 (p > 0.05). A positive correlation was found between PBMC-IG and hemoglobin value, as well as between PBMC-IG and weight loss. There was no correlation between PBMC-IG and other variables [age, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), C-reactive protein (CRP)]. We conclude that tuberculosis activates Th1 immune response due to increase of PBMC producing IFN-gamma. There was no difference between the first sample (TBC1) and the second sample (TBC2) of PBMC-IG. This result can have occurred due to treatment influence, or can indicate that the immune response reachs a plateau. The positive correlation among PBMC-IG and both hemoglobin level and weight loss indicates that may exist a link between patient's clinical status and the immune response intensity.Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP

Correlation between serum tumor necrosis factor alpha levels and clinical severity of tuberculosis

This study verified the correlation between the serum levels of TNF alpha and different clinical forms of tuberculosis. We described a group of 24 patients presenting several clinical forms of tuberculosis and a control group of 13 healthy individuals. The levels of TNF alpha were measured by bioassay method. The levels of TNF-alpha had significant differences between the tuberculosis and control groups. The patients with abnormal chest X-Ray findings had higher TNF alpha levels (15328.48 ± 4602.19 pg/mL) when compared to patients with normal X-Rays (3353.18 ± 1495.29 pg/mL) (p<0.05). Patients that lost weight had higher TNF alpha levels (15468.54 ± 4580.54 pg/mL) than those that didn't loose weight (2904.98 ± 1367.89) (p<0.05). The levels of TNF alpha were higher in patients with a positive PPD skin test than in those with a negative PPD test (p<0.05). There was a positive correlation between patients' clinical severity and the serum levels of TNF alpha. In patients with successive measurements of TNF alpha, we observed that there was a drop in cytokine levels, and also a clinical improvement concomitantly. We concluded that there was a correlation between serum TNF alpha levels and chest X-Ray alterations, loss of weight, positive PPD skin test and clinical severity in patients with tuberculosis. There was evidence of a worse clinical outcome in patients with tuberculosis that presented higher TNF alpha serum levels

Comparative analysis of rat hepatocytes invasion process by Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella Typhimurium: Morphological characterization, quantification of TNF-alpha release and cellular death by apoptosis

INTRODUÇÃO: Os hepatócitos apresentam papel potencial em iniciar e amplificar a resposta inflamatória aguda no fígado, através da liberação de citocinas pró-inflamatórias, em papel complementar ao exercido pelas células de Kupffer e endoteliais. A invasão bacteriana da célula hepática é um estímulo para que o hepatócito produza citocinas como o TNF-alfa, capaz de induzir sua própria morte por apoptose. O TNF-alfa pode ser tanto um agente citotóxico (induzindo a morte celular), quanto um agente protetor (através da ativação de NF-kB). A morte por apoptose do hepatócito libertaria as bactérias que seriam destruídas pelo sistema imunológico hepático ativado. Salmonella Typhimurium (ST) e Listeria monocytogenes (LM) são patógenos responsáveis por importantes doenças de origem alimentar. O hepatócito é o maior local de replicação bacteriana no fígado. As conseqüências da invasão bacteriana dos hepatócitos e sua repercussão na produção de TNF-alfa e na morte celular necessitam ser melhor xxix avaliadas. MÉTODOS: Nesse estudo procuramos investigar o comportamento dos hepatócitos invadidos por ST e LM sorogrupos 4a, 4b e 1/2a, analisando os seguintes parâmetros: a) morfologia = por microscopia óptica (MO) (hematoxilina e eosina) e por microscopia eletrônica (ME); b) dosagem do TNF-alfa liberado pelos hepatócitos invadidos = o TNF-alfa liberado foi detectado por técnica ELISA no sobrenadante das culturas; c) pesquisa da morte celular por apoptose = avaliada através das técnicas TUNEL e anexina (citometria de fluxo). Para todos os parâmetros foi realizada análise comparativa estatística entre os quatro tipos de bactéria. RESULTADOS: As monocamadas de hepatócitos agredidas por Listeria monocytogenes e Salmonella Typhimurium apresentam ruptura em sua distribuição, e sinais de desorganização citoplasmática e nuclear. Para as bactérias ST, LM 4a, LM 4b e LM 1/2a obtivemos os seguintes valores em seqüência: a) taxa de liberação de TNF-alfa (pg/mL): 146,9±18,38; 94,71±13,89; 94,52±15,66 e 58,16±15,49; b) capacidade de produção de TNF-alfa (pg/mL): -67,20±71,56; -46,49±54,10; -106,3±61,0 e 58,16±15,49; c) taxa de apoptose avaliada por TUNEL em unidade de área (UA): 23,86±1,614; 15,92±0,9343; 21,14±1,421 e 23,93±1,263; d) capacidades de produção de apoptose por TUNEL em UA: -50,67±12,42; 10,81±7,186; - 17,22±10,93 e -40,27±9,712; e) taxas de apoptose por anexina em UA: 12,51±2,052; 23,10±3,481; 26,61±3,414 e 18,57±2,497; f) capacidades de produção de apoptose por anexina em UA: -63,31±15,79; -126,4±26,78; - 142,0±26,26 e -97,75±19,21. CONCLUSÕES: a) ocorre liberação de TNFxxx alfa pelos hepatócitos invadidos, sendo que a Salmonella Typhimurium foi responsável pela maior taxa de liberação de TNF-alfa, e Listeria monocytogenes 4b pela maior capacidade de produção de TNF-alfa; b) ocorre morte por apoptose dos hepatócitos invadidos por bactérias, avaliada através da técnica TUNEL, sendo que Salmonella Typhimurium e Listeria monocytogenes 1/2a foram responsáveis pelas maiores taxas e capacidades de produção de apoptose; c) ocorre morte dos hepatócitos invadidos por apoptose, avaliada através da técnica da anexina, sendo que Listeria monocytogenes 4b foi responsável pelas maiores taxas e capacidades de produção de apoptose; d) os hepatócitos cultivados invadidos pelas bactérias Salmonella Typhimurium e Listeria monocytogenes apresentam alterações morfológicas, com ruptura da distribuição da monocamada, e sinais de desorganização citoplasmática e nuclearINTRODUCTION: Hepatocytes can play an important role in the initiation or amplification of the hepatic acute inflammatory response, through the release of proinflammatory cytokines. The bacterial invasion of hepatocyte is a stimulus for production of TNF-alpha by these cells, and this phenomenon induces its own death by apoptosis. TNF-alpha is as a cytotoxic agent (inducing cellular death), as a protector agent (through NF-kB activation). The hepatocyte death by apoptosis may release intracellular bacteria that would be destroyed by hepatic immunological system. Salmonella Typhimurium (ST) and Listeria monocytogenes (LM) are important foodborne pathogens. The hepatocyte is the major site of bacterial replication in the liver. The consequences of hepatocytes bacterial invasion must be better evaluated. METHODS: In the present work we show the behavior of hepatocytes invaded by ST and LM serotypes 4a, 4b and 1/2a, through: a) morphology = by optic microscopy (OM) (hematoxylin-eosin staining) and electronic microscopy (EM); b) quantification of TNF-alpha released by hepatocytes = TNF-alpha released was determined by ELISA in culture supernatants; c) evaluation of apoptotic cell death by TUNEL and annexin techniques (flow cytometry). For all parameters were made a statistical comparative analysis among the four types of bacteria. RESULTS: The hepatocytes monolayers invaded by LM and ST presented ruptures in your organization, and signs of nuclear and cytoplasmic disorder. For the bacteria ST, LM 4a, LM 4b and LM 1/2a we obtained the following values respectively: a) rate of TNF-alpha released (pg/mL): 146,9±18,38; 94,71±13,89; 94,52±15,66 and 58,16±15,49; b) capacities of TNF-alpha production (pg/mL): -67,20±71,56; -46,49±54,10; -106,3±61,0 and 58,16±15,49; c) rate of apoptosis by TUNEL in unit of area (UA): 23,86±1,614; 15,92±0,9343; 21,14±1,421 and 23,93±1,263; d) capacities of apoptosis production by TUNEL in UA: -50,67±12,42; 10,81±7,186; - 17,22±10,93 and -40,27±9,712; e) rate of apoptosis by annexin in UA: 12,51±2,052; 23,10±3,481; 26,61±3,414 and 18,57±2,497; f) capacities of apoptosis production by annexin in UA: -63,31±15,79; -126,4±26,78; - 142,0±26,26 and -97,75±19,21. CONCLUSIONS: a) ST was responsible for the major rate of TNF-alpha released and LM 4b was responsible for the major capacity of TNF-alpha production; b) ST and LM 1/2a caused the major rates and capacities of apoptosis,production, evaluated by TUNEL technique; c) LM 4b was responsible for the major rates and capacities of apoptosis production, evaluated by annexin technique; d) the cultured hepatocytes invaded by bacteria ST and LM presented morphological alterations, with monolayer rupture, and signs of nuclear and cytoplasmic disorde

Invasão de hepatócitos de rato por Listeria monocytogenes e análise do papel do TNF-alfa na apoptose

Listeria monocytogenes, etiological agent of severe human foodborne infection, uses sophisticated mechanisms of entry into host cytoplasm and manipulation of the cellular cytoskeleton, resulting in cell death. The host cells and bacteria interaction may result in cytokine production as Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) alpha. Hepatocytes have potential to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines as TNF-alpha when invaded by bacteria. In the present work we showed the behavior of hepatocytes invaded by L. monocytogenes by microscopic analysis, determination of TNF-alpha production by bioassay and analysis of the apoptosis through TUNEL technique. The presence of bacterium, in ratios that ranged from 5 to 50,000 bacteria per cell, induced the rupture of cellular monolayers. We observed the presence of internalized bacteria in the first hour of incubation by electronic microscopy. The levels of TNF-alpha increased from first hour of incubation to sixth hour, ranging from 0 to 3749 pg/mL. After seven and eight hours of incubation non-significant TNF-alpha levels decrease occurred, indicating possible saturation of cellular receptors. Thus, the quantity of TNF-alpha produced by hepatocytes was dependent of the incubation time, as well as of the proportion between bacteria and cells. The apoptosis rate increased in direct form with the incubation time (1 h to 8 + 24 h), ranging from 0 to 43%, as well as with the bacteria : cells ratio. These results show the ability of hepatocyte invasion by non-hemolytic L. monocytogenes, and the main consequences of this phenomenon were the release of TNF-alpha by hepatocytes and the induction of apoptosis. We speculate that hepatocytes use apoptosis induced by TNF-alpha for release bacteria to extracellular medium. This phenomenon may facilitate the bacteria destruction by the immune system.Listeria monocytogenes, agente etiológico de infecção grave de origem alimentar, utiliza mecanismos sofisticados de entrada no citoplasma do hospedeiro e manipulação do citoesqueleto, resultando em morte celular. As interações entre células do hospedeiro e bactérias podem resultar em produção de citocinas como o Fator de Necrose Tumoral alfa (TNF-alfa). Hepatócitos têm potencial de produzir citocinas pro-inflamatórias como TNF-alfa, quando invadidos por bactérias. No presente trabalho demonstramos o comportamento dos hepatócitos invadidos por L. monocytogenes pela análise microscópica, determinação da produção de TNF-alfa por bioensaio e análise da apoptose pela técnica TUNEL. A presença da bactéria, na razão que variou de 5 a 50.000 bactérias por célula, induziu ruptura das monocamadas celulares. Observamos presença de bactérias internalizadas na 1ª hora de incubação por microscopia eletrônica. Os níveis de TNF-alfa aumentaram da 1ª hora de incubação até a 6ª hora, variando de 0 a 3749 pg/mL. Nas 7ª e 8ª horas de incubação, ocorreram quedas não significativas dos níveis de TNF-alfa, indicando possível saturação dos receptores celulares. A quantidade de TNF-alfa produzido por hepatócitos foi dependente do tempo de incubação, assim como da proporção entre bactérias e células. A taxa de apoptose aumentou diretamente com o tempo de incubação (1 h a 8 + 24 h), variando de 0 a 43%, assim como com a razão bactérias : células. Estes resultados mostram a habilidade de L. monocytogenes não-hemolítica em invadir os hepatócitos, e as principais conseqüências deste fenômeno são: liberação de TNF-alfa e indução de apoptose. Assim, podemos especular que hepatócitos usam apoptose induzida por TNF-alfa para liberar bactérias de seu interior, facilitando a destruição destas pelo sistema imune

Estudo de hepatócitos de rato em cultura primária submetidos a hipóxia e reoxigenação: ação dos citoprotetores prostaglandina E1, superóxido dismutase, alopurinol e verapamil

CONTEXT: Exposure of hepatocytes to pathological conditions in a microenvironment of hypoxia and reoxygenation is very frequent in hepatic diseases. Several substances present perspectives for cytoprotective action on hepatocyte submitted to reoxygenation after hypoxia and simple hypoxia. OBJECTIVE: We research therapeutic options for hepatocytes submitted to hypoxia and hypoxia + reoxygenation injury. METHODS: Primary culture of rat hepatocytes was submitted to hypoxia (2 hours) plus reoxygenation (2 hours) and simple hypoxia (4 hours) in the presence or the absence of cytoprotectors. The hepatocyte lesion was evaluated by functional criteria through percentage of lactate dehydrogenase released and cell viability. The effects of the cytoprotectors prostaglandin E1 3 &#951;g/mL, superoxide dismutase 80 &#956;g/mL, allopurinol 20 &#956;M and verapamil 10-4 M were studied in this model of injury. RESULTS: Reoxygenation after hypoxia induced more significant lesion in cultured hepatocytes compared to simple hypoxia, detected by analysis of functional criteria. There was a significant reduction of percentage of lactate dehydrogenase released and a significant increase of percentage of cell viability in the hypoxia + reoxygenation + cytoprotectors groups compared to hypoxia + reoxygenation groups. Prostaglandin E1, superoxide dismutase and verapamil also protected the group submitted to simple hypoxia, when evaluated by functional criteria. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that reoxygenation after hypoxia significantly increased the lesion of cultured rat hepatocytes when compared to simple hypoxia. Prostaglandin E1, superoxide dismutase, allopurinol and verapamil acted as cytoprotectors to the rat cultured hepatocytes submitted to hypoxia + reoxygenation in vitro. The substances prostaglandin E1, superoxide dismutase and verapamil protected hepatocytes submitted to simple hypoxia on the basis of all the criteria studied in this experimental model.CONTEXTO: A exposição dos hepatócitos a condições patológicas em que ocorram microambientes de hipóxia e reoxigenação são muito frequentes em doenças hepáticas. Várias substâncias apresentam perspectivas de ação citoprotetora para hepatócitos submetidos a reoxigenação após hipóxia e hipóxia simples. OBJETIVO: Pesquisaram-se opções terapêuticas para o dano dos hepatócitos submetidos a hipóxia e hipóxia + reoxigenação. MÉTODOS: Hepatócitos de rato em cultura primária foram submetidos a hipóxia (2 horas) mais reoxigenação (2 horas) e hipóxia simples (4 horas), na presença ou ausência dos citoprotetores. A lesão dos hepatócitos foi avaliada por critérios funcionais através da percentagem liberada de desidrogenase láctica e da viabilidade celular. Os efeitos dos citoprotetores prostaglandina E1 3 &#951;g/mL, superóxido dismutase 80 &#956;g/mL, alopurinol 20 &#956;M e verapamil 10-4M, foram estudados neste modelo de injúria celular. RESULTADOS: A reoxigenação após hipóxia induziu lesão mais significativa nos hepatócitos cultivados comparado com hipóxia simples, conforme demonstrado pela análise dos critérios funcionais. Houve significativa redução da porcentagem liberada de desidrogenase láctica e aumento significativo da percentagem de viabilidade celular nos grupos hipóxia + reoxigenação + citoprotetores em comparação com o grupo hipóxia + reoxigenação. Prostaglandina E1, superóxido dismutase e verapamil também protegeram o grupo hipóxia simples, quando avaliado pelos critérios funcionais. CONCLUSÕES: Conclui-se que a reoxigenação após hipóxia aumentou significativamente a lesão dos hepatócitos de rato cultivados, em comparação com a hipóxia simples. Prostaglandina E1, superóxido dismutase, alopurinol e verapamil foram citoprotetores para os hepatócitos de rato submetidos a hipóxia + reoxigenação in vitro. As substâncias prostaglandina E1, superóxido dismutase e verapamil protegeram os hepatócitos submetidos a hipóxia simples com base em todos os critérios estudados neste modelo experimental.Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP

Produção de tnf-a e apoptose em hepatócitos após invasão por listeria monocytogenes e salmonella typhimurium

Invasion of hepatocytes by Listeria monocytogenes (LM) and Salmonella Typhimurium (ST) can stimulate tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-&#945;) release and induce apoptosis. In this study, we compared the behavior of hepatocytes invaded by three L. monocytogenes serotypes (LM-4a, LM-4b and LM-1/2a) and by ST to understand which bacterium is more effective in the infectious process. We quantified TNF-&#945; release by ELISA, apoptosis rates by annexin V (early apoptosis) and TUNEL (late apoptosis) techniques. The cell morphology was studied too. TNF-&#945; release rate was highest in ST-invaded hepatocytes. ST and LM-1/2a induced the highest apoptosis production rates evaluated by TUNEL. LM-4b produced the highest apoptosis rate measured by annexin. Invaded hepatocytes presented various morphological alterations. Overall, LM-4b and LM-1/2a proved to be the most efficient at cell invasion, although ST adapted faster to the environment and induced earlier hepatocyte TNF-&#945; release.A invasão de hepatócitos por Listeria monocytogenes (LM) e Salmonella Typhimurium (ST) pode estimular a liberação do Fator de Necrose Tumoral (TNF-&#945;) e induzir a apoptose celular. Neste estudo comparamos o comportamento de hepatócitos invadidos por três sorotipos de L. monocytogenes (LM-4a, LM-4b e LM-1/2a) e por ST para entender qual bacteria é mais efetiva no processo infeccioso. Nós quantificamos a liberação de TNF-&#945; pelos hepatócitos por ELISA e as taxas de apoptose pelas técnicas de anexina V (apoptose precoce) e TUNEL (apoptose tardia). A morfologia das células foi estudada também. A taxa de liberação de TNF-&#945; foi mais alta em hepatócitos invadidos por ST. ST e LM-1/2a induziram as maiores taxas de apoptose pelo método TUNEL, enquanto LM-4b produziu as maiores taxas de apoptose por anexina V. Os hepatócitos invadidos apresentaram várias alterações morfológicas. Na análise do conjunto de dados, os sorotipos LM-4b e LM-1/2a provaram ser os mais eficientes na invasão celular, enquanto que ST adaptou-se mais rápido ao meio e induziu a liberação precoce de TNF-&#945; pelos hepatócitos.Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP