Computing and Organizations: What We Know and What We Don\u27t Know

In examining the literature on the impact of computers on organizations, we find it puzzling that many people are willing to speak and write as though the overall effects of computing technologies were a foregone conclusion. Many observers seem to believe that computer impacts can be determinedapriori by deducing fromabstractprinciples whatthe effects of computersareboundtobe. Wearguetheopposite: thatevidenceonthesesubjectsisactually fragmentary and very mixed, and that a priori arguments are particularly inappropriate in light of the wide range and variety of variables at work in these situations. In the following pages we examine the literature on the effects of computing on the numbers and quality of jobs on management decision-malcing and on organizational dealings with clients and customers. We alsoconsidervariousperspectivesonthecausesoforganizationaldecisionsto adopt computing in the first place. Our conlusions are similar for all of these areas: virtually none of the studies mounted to date has been capable of yielding a persuasive and comprehensive view of computer-induced social change. We need to go beyond individual case studies, to initiate a program of comparative research on representative samples of organizations. QUALITY OF WORK The research literauire on the impact of new information technologies onjobcontentandjobsatisfactionprovides amass ofcontradictoryfindings.The wide range of informed opinion can best be illustrated by describing the two extreme positions: deskilling versus upgrading. The deskilling perspective suggests that automation is used to striprelatively-skilledjobsoftheirconceptualcontent(Braverman).Thoseconceptualtasks previously integrated into work are either built into computer algorithms, or are transferred to a numerically smaller number of high-level specialists. This deskilling manifests itself in two distinct ways: intro-occupational changes, where the skill content of a particular job decreases overtime; andinter-occupational changes where the numberof personsin skilled jobs shrink andthenumberof employees inunskilled jobs rises. Inthe secondofthese cases, one empirical indicator of computer-generated deskilling is a shift in the occupational structure of the white-collar workforce. The deslcilling position implies a more polarized pyramidal distributionof skill: a mass of unskilled clerical workers atthe bottomand a small number of conceptual workers at the top (Driscoll). Kraft and Greenbaum have taken the analysis even further, arguing that even conceptual jobs like programming are being increasingly deskilled. In contrast, Guiliano andothers have arguedthat computerization and othernew information technologies upgrade rather than deslal white-collar workers The upgrading thesis suggests that automation primarily occurs in already-routinized contexts; the new technology takes the drudge work out of information processing by automating the most repetitious manual aspects, leaving humans to concentrate on conceptual and decision-making tasks. The potential victims of such upgrading are the lowest levels of clerical workers who manually manipulate data However, this lowest stratum need not be adversely affected by automation because the introduction of computers manifests itself in the relative growth of higher-level jobs and the relative shrinkage of lowerpositions. The absolute number of low-level workers need not decline, because total white- collar employment is still growing. Thus, in direct contrast to the deskilling approach, the impact of computer technology is said to be an increase in worker satisfaction, and a shift in occupational structure away from a pyramid shape (few skilled, many semi- or unskilled) toward a diamond shape (few top managers, many professionals and middle managers, few clericals) (Zuboff). Many case studies of intra-occupational change describe loss of conceptual content, fragmentation, and deskilling of white-collar work after computers are introduced. However, some observers also find consolidation of tasks, and upgrading. Attewell\u27s study of the insurance industry confirms that both upgrading and deskilling occur within occupations being computerized, but finds that upgrading predominates Several quantitative studies of the whole economy find little evidence for intra-occupational desldlling since 1949, but these studies are based on government data whose quality has been disputed Evidence on interoccupational change is similarly contradictory, althoughmostcase studiesreportupgrading. Quantitative studies based on disputed DOT data don\u27t find deskilling. Studies which ask workers about their experiences with computerized work are typically positive, although some report increased time pressure and increased supervision. We conclude that both deskillingand upgrading canoccurfollowingcomputerization. Theoretically, whatmattersis to find out what factors and situations produce these vatious outcomes, and the relative frequency of each effect We propose systematic surveys to answer these questions. EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT Pessimists anticipate substantial unemployment due to the labor saving effects of new information technologies. Several input/output models of European economies confirm this, albeit based upon shaky data Certain case studies show employment losses of up to 50% in fields like metalworking. But these studies are not from representativesamplesof businessesand somustbetreated with caution Optimistspointto earlier periods of technological change when rapid growth in productivity did not create unemployment If goods become cheaper, demand grows, and total production increases Thus, even with more pivductive technology one still needs as many workers as previously. This optimistic position uses the concept of long waves of economic boom and bust, in which the introduction of new technologies (steam power, electricity, automobiles, microelectronics) causes sudden surges in investment, an upswing in economic activity, and increases in employment At present, insufficient evidence exists to decide between the optimistic and pessimistic analyses. We need careful studies of representative samples of firms, documenting their employment levels at various stages of computer automation, to properly evaluate the employment impact of the new technologies. MANAGEMENT EFFECTS Students of organizations have frequently observed that control over information is a source of powerin organizations. As such, new technologies that alter the quality and availability of information are likely to shift balances of power between organizational groups: workers, supervisors, middle managers executives (Olson and Lucas). Laudon and others viewed such processes as leading to increased centrolization of power in computer-automated organizations. Leavitt and Whisler predicted that new information technologies would eliminate whole layers of middle management as improved information led to centralized decision making higher up the corporate heirarchy. Several case studies have supported this view; and recent research on MIS and computer mail emphasize top down controL However, there is some evidence for the opposite view, that the increase in communication resulting from new technologies can decentralize decision making. Blau et aL have found that, far from eliminating levels of management computers are associated with an increased number of levels of line management and with enhanced local management decision making. In several studies of the introduction of computers in local governments Danziger, Dutton, Kling, Kraemer, and Northrop have documented subtle shifts in power among supervisors, bureaucrats, andmanagers. Contextualvariables werealso foundtobeimportant the effects in small municipalities were not the same as those in larger ones, for example. Robey offers a complementaly view, arguing that sometimes computers don\u27t effect the distribution of power at all sometimes they reinforce the status quo, sometimes they aid decentralization. If we assume that there must be a single effect of computers on management then these case studies appear contradictory. However, if we assume a range of effects is possible, then the taskof future researchbecomes clear. We mustidentifythose variables whichcanaccount for differential outcomes through comparative research on representative samples of organizations, examining factors such as size, industry type, degree of prior routinization of work, skill-level of workforce, and soon ORGANIZATIONS AND THEIR PUBLICS Changing information flows will also alter relationships between organizations and their environments- particularly the general public. Rule, Shills, and others have focused on how computers whet the appetite of organizations, especially government:, for information on the people with whom they deal Others have speculated on new kinds of informational services which may become available to the populace because of computers. Much additional research is needed in this area. THE LMPETUS FOR INNOVATION There is a common belief that organizations adopt computer and information technologies in order to pursue goals of efficiency and costeffectiveness. Againstthis view is a position firstarticulated byE ulthattechnologyisa selfsustaining force, which generates needs for itself: once a technology is available it is inevitably used, applications are found for it Odd as this latter position sounds, there is certain evidence for it Several writers have found that whateverthe intentions of managers, computers do not necessarily save money or increase efficiency. Rather than improve activities already in place, computers may be adopted for, or give rise to qualitatively new organizational activities. The application and spread of computers can reflect power politics within organizations rather than efficiency and so on. Such preliminary insights also suggest the need for futire comparative research into the causes of the introduction of new computer-based technologies

1830 and the Un-Natural History of Revolution

http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/50849/1/68.pd

The once and future information society

In the late twentieth century, many social scientists and other social commentators came to characterize the world as evolving into an “information society.” Central to these claims was the notion that new social uses of information, and particularly application of scientific knowledge, are transforming social life in fundamental ways. Among the supposed transformations are the rise of intellectuals in social importance, growing productivity and prosperity stemming from increasingly knowledge-based economic activity, and replacement of political conflict by authoritative, knowledge-based decision-making. We trace these ideas to their origins in the Enlightenment doctrines of Saint Simon and Comte, show that empirical support for them has never been strong, and consider the durability of their social appeal

All Over Nothing At All : Fox Trot Song

https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/mmb-vp/4150/thumbnail.jp

The curious case of the Satyrium neglectum complex: a taxonomic, ecological, and phylogenetic study.

Masters Degree. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg.Classical herbarium taxonomy uses a combination of morphological features from pressed specimens and distribution information as data in species delimitation. Whilst morphology is critical to species delimitation, additional information on phylogenetic relationships and fieldbased studies of ecology can inform taxonomic decisions. Satyrium neglectum Schltr. is a highly variable taxon currently comprising two subspecies, ssp. neglectum (Schltr.) A.V. Hall and ssp. woodii (Schltr.) A.V. Hall both of which are widely distributed in subtropical southern and eastern Africa. Variation in morphology and differences in apparent pollination systems, both between the subspecies, and within ssp. neglectum suggests the presence of two taxa within the current concept of the latter. This information, as well the exclusive reliance on herbariumbased taxonomy in the most recent species revision, formed the background to this re-evaluation of the systematics of the complex. A combination of detailed morphometrics and molecular phylogenetics demonstrated that the current concept of S. neglectum ssp. neglectum is inaccurate. A principal components analysis using traits measured from herbarium records from across the range, and ethanol-preserved flowers from South Africa, confirmed the presence of two morphologically distinct clusters within ssp. neglectum. Representatives from these two forms are separated along an elevation gradient. Bayesian inference using a combination of plastid and nuclear DNA sequence data revealed incongruent topologies. The nuclear topology is not consistent with current taxonomic boundaries, and revealed a separation between the high-elevation form and the low-elevation form of S. neglectum ssp. neglectum as well as ssp. woodii. The plastid data set also confirmed the separation of the high-altitude form of ssp. neglectum, but otherwise the topology reflects geography, as southern African accessions are separate from eastern African accessions. Floral scent was investigated in combination with published and novel pollinator observations in the Satyrium neglectum species complex. Floral scent composition and emission rates are mostly representative of associated pollination syndromes in previously published pollination work, with the exception of the high-elevation form. Published observations of ssp. woodii indicate that the species is pollinated by amethyst and the greater-double-coloured sunbirds, and the scent composition and emission rate is largely reflective of this. In addition, published observations showed a system of butterfly pollination in the low-elevation form of ssp. neglectum and long-proboscid fly pollination in the high-elevation form. However, new night time observations revealed additional pollination by settling moths in the high elevation form. These observations make sense in the context of the scent profile, which is dominated by compounds typically associated with moth pollination, such as phenylethyl alcohol and eugenol. In addition, two settling moths showed electroantennographic responses to the two dominant compounds in the scent bouquet of the high-elevation form. The compounds that dominate the scent of the butterfly-pollinated low elevation form are hexan-1-ol, octan-1-ol and benzyl alcohol, while previously published work on ssp. woodii showed that it is virtually unscented, and has emission rates that are markedly lower than other taxa pollinated by insects. Based on the morphological, phylogenetic and scent chemistry analyses, a case was made for the high-altitude form to be considered a separate taxonomic entity. This is formally described under the new name Satyrium basutorum. The analyses suggest that ssp. neglectum and ssp. woodii should be retained as subspecies, but a further investigation is required to identify the status of the eastern African synonyms Satyrium sceptrum and S. neglectum var. brevicalcar.Author's Keywords : Satyrium, Phylogeney, Morphometrics, Ecology, Pollination

A quantitative test of the “Ecomorphotype Hypothesis” for fossil true seals (Family Phocidae)

The fossil record of true seals (Family Phocidae) is mostly made up of isolated bones, some of which are type specimens. Previous studies have sought to increase referral of non-overlapping and unrelated fossils to these taxa using the ‘Ecomorphotype Hypothesis’, which stipulates that certain differences in morphology between taxa represent adaptations to differing ecology. On this basis, bulk fossil material could be lumped to a specific ecomorphotype, and then referred to species in that ecomorphotype, even if they are different bones. This qualitative and subjective method has been used often to expand the taxonomy of fossil phocids, but has never been quantitatively tested. We test the proposed ecomorphotypes using morphometric analysis of fossil and extant northern true seal limb bones, specifically principal components analysis and discriminant function analysis. A large amount of morphological overlap between ecomorphotypes, and poor discrimination between them, suggests that the ‘Ecomorphotype Hypothesis’ is not a valid approach. Further, the analysis failed to assign fossils to ecomorphotypes designated in previous studies, with some fossils from the same taxa being designated as different ecomorphotypes. The failure of this approach suggests that all fossils referred using this method should be considered to have unknown taxonomic status. In light of this, and previous findings that phocid limb bones have limited utility as type specimens, we revise the status of named fossil phocid species. We conclude that the majority of named fossil phocid taxa should be considered nomina dubia

On the Perception of Religious Group Membership from Faces

BACKGROUND: The study of social categorization has largely been confined to examining groups distinguished by perceptually obvious cues. Yet many ecologically important group distinctions are less clear, permitting insights into the general processes involved in person perception. Although religious group membership is thought to be perceptually ambiguous, folk beliefs suggest that Mormons and non-Mormons can be categorized from their appearance. We tested whether Mormons could be distinguished from non-Mormons and investigated the basis for this effect to gain insight to how subtle perceptual cues can support complex social categorizations. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Participants categorized Mormons' and non-Mormons' faces or facial features according to their group membership. Individuals could distinguish between the two groups significantly better than chance guessing from their full faces and faces without hair, with eyes and mouth covered, without outer face shape, and inverted 180°; but not from isolated features (i.e., eyes, nose, or mouth). Perceivers' estimations of their accuracy did not match their actual accuracy. Exploration of the remaining features showed that Mormons and non-Mormons significantly differed in perceived health and that these perceptions were related to perceptions of skin quality, as demonstrated in a structural equation model representing the contributions of skin color and skin texture. Other judgments related to health (facial attractiveness, facial symmetry, and structural aspects related to body weight) did not differ between the two groups. Perceptions of health were also responsible for differences in perceived spirituality, explaining folk hypotheses that Mormons are distinct because they appear more spiritual than non-Mormons. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Subtle markers of group membership can influence how others are perceived and categorized. Perceptions of health from non-obvious and minimal cues distinguished individuals according to their religious group membership. These data illustrate how the non-conscious detection of very subtle differences in others' appearances supports cognitively complex judgments such as social categorization

Variations in HIV Prevention Coverage in Subpopulations of Australian Gay and Bisexual Men, 2017–2021: Implications for Reducing Inequities in the Combination Prevention Era

Using repeated behavioural surveillance data collected from gay and bisexual men (GBM) across Australia, we assessed trends in HIV prevention coverage (the level of ‘safe sex’ achieved in the population by the use of effective prevention methods, including condoms, pre-exposure prophylaxis [PrEP] and having an undetectable viral load). We stratified these trends by age, country of birth/recency of arrival, sexual identity, and the proportion of gay residents in the participant’s suburb. Among 25,865 participants with casual male partners, HIV prevention coverage increased from 69.8% in 2017 to 75.2% in 2021, lower than the UNAIDS target of 95%. Higher levels of coverage were achieved among older GBM (≥ 45 years), non-recently-arrived migrants, and in suburbs with ≥ 10% gay residents. The lowest levels of prevention coverage (and highest levels of HIV risk) were recorded among younger GBM (< 25 years) and bisexual and other-identified participants. Younger, recently-arrived, and bisexual GBM were the most likely to use condoms, while PrEP use was concentrated among gay men, 25–44-year-olds, and in suburbs with more gay residents. The use of undetectable viral load was most common among participants aged ≥ 45 years. Our analysis shows that high HIV prevention coverage can be achieved through a mixture of condom use, PrEP use, and undetectable viral load, or by emphasising PrEP use. In the Australian context, younger, bisexual and other-identified GBM should be prioritised for enhanced access to effective HIV prevention methods. We encourage other jurisdictions to assess the level of coverage achieved by combination prevention, and variations in uptake

Adjusting Behavioural Surveillance and Assessing Disparities in the Impact of COVID-19 on Gay and Bisexual Men’s HIV-Related Behaviour in Australia

COVID-19 has disrupted sexual behaviour and access to health systems. We adapted regular HIV behavioural surveillance of gay and bisexual men (GBM) in Australia in response to COVID-19, assessed the impact on the profile of the sample, the participants’ HIV-related behaviour, and whether COVID-19 may have accentuated existing disparities in the Australian HIV epidemic. Data collected from five states during July 2017–June 2021 were included (N = 31,460). The emphasis on online recruitment after COVID-19 led to smaller sample sizes, greater geographic reach, and a higher proportion of bisexual-identifying participants. Most participants (88.1%) reported physical distancing and 52.1% had fewer sex partners due to COVID-19. In the COVID-19-affected rounds (July 2020–June 2021), the number of male partners, recent HIV testing and pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use all fell, and HIV risk among the smaller group of participants who reported casual sex increased. COVID-related changes were generally more pronounced among GBM aged under 25 years, participants from suburbs with fewer gay residents, and bisexual men. These groups should be prioritised when encouraging GBM to reengage with HIV testing services and effective prevention methods, like condoms and PrEP