Thomas Aquinas and the Generation of the Embryo: Being Human before the Rational Soul

Thesis advisor: Peter KreeftThomas Aquinas is generally viewed as the chief proponent of the theory of delayed animation, the view that the human embryo does not at first have the rational soul proper to human beings. Thomas follows Aristotle's embryology, in which an embryo is animated by a succession of souls. The first is a nutritive soul, having the powers of growth, nutrition, and generation. The second is a sensitive soul, having the additional powers of locomotion and sensing. The third and final soul is the human, or rational soul, which virtually includes the nutritive and sensitive souls. Because Thomas holds that there is only one substantial form of a composite, none of these forms overlap to provide continuity. It is therefore exceedingly difficult to speak of the embryo as one enduring subject through the succession of souls. Moreover, because of the way that the nutritive soul is associated with plants, and the sensitive soul is associated with animals, interpreters generally hold that for Thomas the embryo is first a plant, then an animal, and with the advent of the rational soul, finally a human being. Those who write about the ontological status of the embryo assume that delayed animation necessarily entails delayed hominization, that is, that the embryo only becomes human at a later stage of its development, when it receives the rational soul. Those who hold a delayed animation view of the embryo often invoke Thomas' schedule of successive souls in the embryo as a model for viewing it as not yet human in early stages of development, linking hominization to the ability to perform intellectual operations. That Thomas specifies that a body must be sufficiently organized before the advent of the rational soul seems to them to solidify their view of the embryo as not sufficiently organized to be truly human. Additionally, even outside of an explicitly Thomist framework, Thomist metaphysical principles are often invoked in arguments that center on twinning and totipotency of blastomeres in the early embryo, and whether that early embryo is one individual if it is potentially many. Those who hold immediate animation views (i.e., the embryo receives the rational soul at once, with no mediate states) often adopt the strategy of importing modern data on the internal organization and self-directed development of the embryo, and argue that if only Thomas had known that the zygote was not unformed and undifferentiated, that it has within itself all it needs to become a mature adult human, he would have held that the embryo is immediately suited to receive the rational soul, and thus is human from conception. In this way they attempt to employ a change in scientific data to negate the need for a succession of forms in the embryo. The author identifies the being of the human embryo as a prior metaphysical problem within Thomas' work, and advances a different interpretation of his views: that the embryo, even before the advent of the rational soul, is human. To establish this claim, she traces the problems which emerge in the current debate about when the embryo becomes human, and argues that contrary to expectation, it is not necessary to equate immediate rational animation with immediate hominization, demonstrating that all other approaches yield results entirely untenable for Thomas. A survey of texts reveals that Thomas did in fact view the embryo as human before the rational soul, though he does not methodically work out the implications of that view in a number of areas. Moreover, a distinction based on a passage in Aristotle's Generation of Animals with regard to an additional meaning of generation may resolve the ambivalence in Thomas' account of the embryo as passive under the formative power of the father's semen. Finally, a third meaning of generation is offered to show that Thomas recognized and wished to resolve the difficulty of explaining the continuity and identify of the embryo in the succession of souls. What results is an immediate hominization view of the embryo that, because it accommodates Thomas' succession of souls and does not depend upon importing modern biological data on the embryo, is consistent with Thomas' account, and is thoroughly cognizant of the way Thomas viewed human nature and the final end of human being.Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2013.Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.Discipline: Philosophy

Integrating Water Resources and Land Use Planning

Information and recommendations were developed pertaining to the integrating of water resource and land use planning at a conceptual level. In the accomplishment of this goal, the report acts as a vehicle of information transfer to facilitate recognition of the interrelationships between land use and winter resources planning by practitioners in both areas. The approach that was used includes six basic components: 1) the clarification of current planning theory as it pertains to both water and land use planning, 2) analysis and review of historical and current land use planning practices, 3) review of historical and current land use planning practices, 4) identification of problems and concepts which would affect the integration of land and water planning, 5) the design of a conceptual framework (the IRUM model) which would facilitate the integration of land and water planning, and 6) a case study of a selected planning region for small scale applications of the IRUM model. In connection with the case study, a general population survey was taken to identify social and environmental values, land and water use preferences, and other conditions which would affect an integrated planning effort. The recommendations developed in the report cover institutional issues such as culture, law, and organizational arrangements, and also methodological issues such as conceptual framework development and procedural problems which will confront actual efforts to integrate land and water resource planning

Levels of Analysis in Comprehensive River Basin Planning

Since nearly every water resource managment choice has two or more sides, differences must be resolved in decision making. Equitable resolution requires an understanding of the reasons for the differences. These reasons originate in the implemented plans have physical-environmental, economic, social, cultural, and political impacts at levels ranging from local to national or international in scope. Decisions are made by individuals and groups impacted in all of these dimensions and at all of these levels; the decisions generate additional impacts; and the entire interactive process changes water management practice in ways outside the control of any one decision point or even dicision dimension. The objective of this study is to conceptualize this process in a way that will help in establishing institutional mechanisms for reconciling differences among levels of analysis. The conceptualization used viewed differences in choices being made at the various levels of analysis as associated with perspective differences having value, jurisdiction, action, and temporal elements. The possible combinations of differences within and between these elements were used to identify ten categories of institutional obstacles to efficient water planning (differences in values, conflicts between value and jurisdiction, etc.). The history of water resources planning on the Colorado River basin was then examined to identify 17 specific institutional obstacles, and a computerized policy simulation was applied to levels of analysis in the Uintah basin of Utah to identify three more. These 20 obstacles were shown to be broadly distributed over the ten categories, and the nature of the obstacles defined provides valuable insight into the common characteristics of the major institutional obstacles to water management. The priciples of logic as applicable to rationality in decision making were then used to identify two root causes of levels\u27 conflicts. If alternatives are evaluated from a single perspective, the ostensible causal relationships commonly used lead to estimates of the sum of the consequences from the parts of a water management program being far more than the total consequences of the entire program. Looked at another way, since available water resources planning tools do not properly allocate consequences from interactive processes to individual causal sources, decisions made to acheive a desired impact are not based on reliable information. In fact, different decisions made over time from a single perspective have conflicting impacts. When multiple perspectices are considered, one finds that individual values do not aggregate linearly in forming social values, many actions are not efficient in achieving preferred values, and decision makers are not able to implement their plans as desired. Real world situations combine interacting perspectives and partial contributions. Nine recommendations are made on what to do next in improving water resources planning in an interactive, nonlinear world

The Virgin River Basin Study: A Regional Approach to Multiobjective Planning for Water and Related Resources

A joint research effort by the Utah Water Research Laboratory and the Nevado Center for Water Resources Research applied two multiobjective planning models to the Virgin River Basin in order to test the efficiency and practicality of applying such tools in water resrouces planning. The surrogate Worth Trade-off (SWT) method couples mathematical optimization to quantify trade offs among noncommensurable objectives with interviews to compare public preferences with respect to these trade offs. PROPDEMM uses information on interest group objectives, balues, willingness to pay, influence, lebel of information, etc. to compare the political feasibility of alternative courses of action. Both models were applied to assess the difficulties in doing so and the usefulness of the results. The trade offs identified by the SWT method showed agricultural water use to be so dominant in the basin that slight adjustments in irrigation efficiency could supply all foreseeable needs for additional water for other uses, such trade offs to be too inconsequential to identify and compare public preferences, and other trade offs to be impossible because of the position taken by ecologists that any environmental change would destroy a rare species of minnow. Prior to analyzing a situation by the SWT method, the planner should make sure that the trade offs will be of a magnitude meaningful to the public and that the model selected will be sufficiently refined in analyzing small units in time and space to identify locally significant trade offs. PROPDEMM showed the politically most controversial trade off to be between construction of energy generating facilities and life support for the minnow, a controbersy that would probably be decided in favor of the environmentalist because of their power and non-openness to change. Improvements to the model to do a better job of interfacing environmental with social data were recommended. Social modeling in such low population areas was found to be restricted by laws against disclosure of private information because of the very small numbers of individuals living in many evaluation units

Closing the Gap Between Mammalian and Invertebrate Peripheral Nerve Injury: Protocol for a Novel Nerve Repair

Background: Outcomes after peripheral nerve injuries are poor despite current nerve repair techniques. Currently, there is no conclusive evidence that mammalian axons are capable of spontaneous fusion after transection. Notably, certain invertebrate species are able to auto-fuse after transection. Although mammalian axonal auto-fusion has not been observed experimentally, no mammalian study to date has demonstrated regenerating axolemmal membranes contacting intact distal segment axolemmal membranes to determine whether mammalian peripheral nerve axons have the intrinsic mechanisms necessary to auto-fuse after transection.Objective: This study aims to assess fusion competence between regenerating axons and intact distal segment axons by enhancing axon regeneration, delaying Wallerian degeneration, limiting the immune response, and preventing myelin obstruction. Methods: This study will use a rat sciatic nerve model to evaluate the effects of a novel peripheral nerve repair protocol on behavioral, electrophysiologic, and morphologic parameters. This protocol consists of a variety of preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative interventions. Fusion will be assessed with electrophysiological conduction of action potentials across the repaired transection site. Axon-axon contact will be assessed with transmission electron microscopy. Behavioral recovery will be analyzed with the sciatic functional index. A total of 36 rats will be used for this study. The experimental group will use 24 rats and the negative control group will use 12 rats. For both the experimental and negative control groups, there will be both a behavior group and another group that will undergo electrophysiological and morphological analysis. The primary end point will be the presence or absence of action potentials across the lesion site. Secondary end points will include behavioral recovery with the sciatic functional index and morphological analysis of axon-axon contact between regenerating axons and intact distal segment axons. Results: The author is in the process of grant funding and institutional review board approval as of March 2020. The final follow-up will be completed by December 2021. Conclusions: In this study, the efficacy of the proposed novel peripheral nerve repair protocol will be evaluated using behavioral and electrophysiologic parameters. The author believes this study will provide information regarding whether spontaneous axon fusion is possible in mammals under the proper conditions. This information could potentially be translated to clinical trials if successful to improve outcomes after peripheral nerve injury

Upplevd Livlighets Påverkan på Uppfattad Trygghet : En Studie om Kvinnors Uppfattning av Livlighet i Folktomma Miljöer genom Virtuell Verklighet

Denna avhandling undersökte förhållandet mellan urbana attribut och upplevd livlighet och dess effekt på kvinnors upplevda säkerhet. Med utgångspunkt i teorier om naturlig övervakning [6] och vikten av att ha andra människor närvarande för att öka kvinnors säkerhet [17], utvärderades fysiska gatuattribut som förutspåddes öka miljöns livlighet. Totalt deltog 27 kvinnor i åldrarna 22-31 i utvärderingen av upplevd säkerhet vid 16 stads gatuhörn genom en två-alternativ tvångsvalsmetod i en virtuell miljö. Valen gjordes två gånger för varje hörn och gatorna visades i en manuellt randomiserad ordning. Resultaten visar en hierarki av attribut på gatunivå som påverkar den upplevda säkerheten mer än fasader med fönster på grund av deras större inverkan på livligheten, och fönster visar sig vara viktigare än grönska. Förutom att bekräfta tidigare forskning visar studien också att människor inte behöver vara närvarande för att en miljö ska uppfattas som levande, eftersom attribut som bilar, kaféer, busshållplatser och fönster fungerar som substitut för mänsklig aktivitet och närvaro.This thesis explored urban street attributes relationship with perceived liveliness and its effect on women’s perceived safety. Drawing on theories of natural surveillance [6] and the importance of having other humans present for women’s increased safety [17], the study evaluated physical street attributes that predicted to increase the liveliness of an urban environment were evaluated. 27 females aged 22-31 participated in evaluating the perceived safety of 16 urban street corners using a two-alternative forced-choice method in a virtual reality environment. The choices were made twice for each corner, with the streets displayed in a manually randomized order. Findings reveal a hierarchy of street-level attributes affecting perceived safety more than windowed facades due to its greater impact on liveliness, and windows being more important than greenery. Along with confirming previous research, it is also found that people do not need to be present for an environment to be perceived as lively as attributes like cars, cafes, bus stops and windows serve as proxies for human activity and presence of others

Upplevd Livlighets Påverkan på Uppfattad Trygghet : En Studie om Kvinnors Uppfattning av Livlighet i Folktomma Miljöer genom Virtuell Verklighet

Denna avhandling undersökte förhållandet mellan urbana attribut och upplevd livlighet och dess effekt på kvinnors upplevda säkerhet. Med utgångspunkt i teorier om naturlig övervakning [6] och vikten av att ha andra människor närvarande för att öka kvinnors säkerhet [17], utvärderades fysiska gatuattribut som förutspåddes öka miljöns livlighet. Totalt deltog 27 kvinnor i åldrarna 22-31 i utvärderingen av upplevd säkerhet vid 16 stads gatuhörn genom en två-alternativ tvångsvalsmetod i en virtuell miljö. Valen gjordes två gånger för varje hörn och gatorna visades i en manuellt randomiserad ordning. Resultaten visar en hierarki av attribut på gatunivå som påverkar den upplevda säkerheten mer än fasader med fönster på grund av deras större inverkan på livligheten, och fönster visar sig vara viktigare än grönska. Förutom att bekräfta tidigare forskning visar studien också att människor inte behöver vara närvarande för att en miljö ska uppfattas som levande, eftersom attribut som bilar, kaféer, busshållplatser och fönster fungerar som substitut för mänsklig aktivitet och närvaro.This thesis explored urban street attributes relationship with perceived liveliness and its effect on women’s perceived safety. Drawing on theories of natural surveillance [6] and the importance of having other humans present for women’s increased safety [17], the study evaluated physical street attributes that predicted to increase the liveliness of an urban environment were evaluated. 27 females aged 22-31 participated in evaluating the perceived safety of 16 urban street corners using a two-alternative forced-choice method in a virtual reality environment. The choices were made twice for each corner, with the streets displayed in a manually randomized order. Findings reveal a hierarchy of street-level attributes affecting perceived safety more than windowed facades due to its greater impact on liveliness, and windows being more important than greenery. Along with confirming previous research, it is also found that people do not need to be present for an environment to be perceived as lively as attributes like cars, cafes, bus stops and windows serve as proxies for human activity and presence of others

Designing of an ambient visualization tool to reduce water consumption

Vatten är en livsviktig resurs vars tillgång på senare tid varit begränsad. År 2019 hade 15 av 21 län i Sverige risk för vattenbrist. KTH samarbetar med företaget Ecoloop som driver ett utvecklingsprojekt med målet att utveckla strategier för vattenbesparing och beteendeförändring som resulterar i minskad vattenanvändning. Visualisering av vattenförbrukning pekas ut som en möjlig strategi för att stödja beteendeförändring. Med utgångspunkt i Ecoloops besparingsmål undersökte vi hur ett visualiseringsverktyg kan representera vattenförbrukning och hur detta kan påverka människors motivation att förändra sitt beteende kring vattenkonsumtion. Tidigare forskning visar att ett ambient verktyg (som existerar i omgivningen som en subtil påminnelse) är lämpligt för att uppmuntra till beteendeförändring då det är ett sätt att öka medvetenhet utan påträngande återkoppling. Vi utvecklade en ambient prototyp av en väggkalender för att visualisera hushålls vattenkonsumtion. Undersökningen av prototypens potential genomfördes i två steg. Först utfördes användartester på en pappersprototyp för att utvärdera användarnas förståelse. Utifrån det togs en digital prototyp fram, vars motivation till beteendeförändring utvärderades genom kvalitativa intervjuer med målgruppen. Målgruppen, mer specifikt, var individer som nyligen flyttat hemifrån. Denna grupp är av stor relevans då de befinner sig i en situation där de för första gången själva får bestämma över sitt hushåll och beteenden. Användartesternas resultat visar att prototypen är ett bra hjälpmedel för att användaren ska få god förståelse för sin vattenkonsumtion. Då det är ett visualiseringsverktyg som är integrerat i vardagen visade resultaten att prototypen har god potential till att påverka motivation till förändrat beteende genom att ge återkoppling som är upplysande och närvarande snarare än påträngande. Användarna i de utförda testerna uttryckte att de var motiverade av prototypen då den ger snabb och intuitiv återkoppling vattenkonsumtionen. Främst uppskattades kombinationen av den symboliska återkopplingen i kombination med de faktiska mätningarna. Våra slutsatser visar att prototypen har potential att leda till beteendeförändring, men det går inte att säga någonting kring om det faktiskt hade lett till en väsentligt minskad vattenanvändning.Water is a vital resource whose supply has recently been limited. In 2019, 15 out of 21 counties in Sweden were at risk of water shortages. KTH has a collaboration with the company Ecoloop, which runs a development project with a goal of developing strategies for water saving and behavior change that results in reduced water use. Visualization of water consumption is pointed out as a possible strategy to support behavior change. Based on Ecoloop's saving goals, this report examines how a visualization tool can represent water consumption and how this can affect people's motivation to change their behavior regarding their water consumption. Previous research shows that an ambient display (which exists in the environment as a subtle reminder) is suitable for encouraging behavior change as it is a way to create awareness without intrusive feedback. After an understanding of water consumption challenges in Sweden were formed, a prototype of a wall calendar was developed to visualize household water consumption. The study of the prototypes potential was conducted in two stages. First, user tests were performed on a paper prototype to evaluate comprehension. Based on this, a digital prototype was developed. Secondly, qualitative interviews were conducted to evaluate the target group’s motivation for behaviour change. The target group, more specifically, were individuals who had recently moved from their childhood homes. This group is of great importance because they are in a situation where they for the first time are in charge of their own household and behavior. The results show that our prototype is a good tool for the user to gain understanding of their water consumption. As it is a visualization tool that is integrated into everyday life, the results showed that the prototype has good potential to influence motivation for behaviour change by providing feedback that is enlightening and attendant rather than intrusive. The users expressed that they were motivated by the prototype as it provides fast and intuitive feedback of their water consumption. Mainly appreciated was the symbolic feedback in combination with the actual measurements. Our conclusions show that the prototype has potential to lead to behaviour change, but it is not possible to say anything about whether our display actually would have led to a significant reduction in water usage.