Advanced undergraduate experiments in vacuum physics and mass spectrometry

A comprehensive high‐vacuum system has been set up and operated in an advanced undergraduate laboratory for students majoring in physics and microelectronics. The aim of the experiment is to provide the students with both practical experience and basic theoretical understanding of the production and measurement of low pressures. The students measure the pumping speed of a rotary forepump and of an oil diffusion pump, as a function of pressure, using procedures adopted by the AVS. A hot‐cathode ionization gauge and a thermocouple gauge are calibrated against a McLeod (absolute) manometer for several gases. The compositions of ambient air, of an isotopic mixture of neon, and of the residual gases in an oil‐diffusion‐pumped system are determined with the aid of a mass spectrometer. The influence of a liquid‐nitrogen‐cooled surface is assessed. Helium leak detection is demonstrated, and the response and sensitivity of the mass spectrometer as a leak detector are evaluated

Variations spatiales et temporelles des précipitations des neuf division climatiques de l'Oklahoma et implications pour l'utilisation locale de l'indice régional

L'objectif de cette étude est de quantifier l'importance des variations spatiales des précipitations mensuelles par rapport à leurs variations temporelles régionales à l'échelle des divisions climatiques de l'Oklahoma. Les variations des précipitations à l'intérieur d'une division climatique sont supposées être constituées par trois composantes : les variations spatiales systématiques, les variations temporelles moyennes de la division climatique et les variations aléatoires. Les variations spatiales systématiques sont définies par le gradient des précipitations moyennes sur l'intégralité de la période. Les variations temporelles moyennes de la division climatique sont représentées par les variations temporelles de la moyenne spatiale des précipitations observées aux stations de la division, cette moyenne étant appelée indice régional. Les variations aléatoires sont estimées avec les différences entre les valeurs centrées réduites des précipitations observées aux stations et celles de l'indice régional. Cette étude montre que les amplitudes des variations aléatoires des précipitations mensuelles des neuf divisions climatiques de l'Oklahoma sont significatives par rapport aux variations temporelles régionales. La quantification de l'amplitude des variations aléatoires est importante pour l'utilisation des prévisions régionales des précipitations, car elle permet de déterminer les plages de variation des précipitations locales autour de l'indice régional et donc l'augmentation des risques pris par les utilisateurs des prévisions régionales pour des applications locales.The objective of this study is to quantify the magnitude of the spatial variations of the monthly precipitation and relate them to the regional temporal variations of the monthly precipitation at the spatial scale of the climate division of Oklahoma. The precipitation variations within a climate division are assumed to consist of three components: the systematic spatial variations, the mean temporal variations of the climate division, and random variations. The systematic spatial variations are defined with the long-term precipitation gradient. The mean temporal variations of the climate division are represented by the temporal variations of the spatial average of the precipitation observed at the stations included in the climate division; this average is called divisional precipitation. The random variations are estimated with the differences between the standardized values of station and divisional precipitation. This study shows that the magnitude of the random variations of the monthly precipitation of the nine climate divisions of Oklahoma is significant compared to the regional temporal variations. The quantification of the magnitude of the random variations is critical for the use of regional precipitation forecasts, because it allows one to define ranges of local precipitation around the divisional precipitation, and then to quantify the increase of the risk taken by local users of the regional precipitation forecasts

Analyse et amélioration d'un indice pluviométrique mensuel régional pour les grandes plaines du sud des États-Unis

L'indice pluviométrique mensuel proposé par le National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) est égal à la moyenne arithmétique des précipitations observées à certaines stations de la division climatique. Les différents problèmes d'homogénéité des données prises en compte par le NCDC pour le calcul de l'indice sont quantifiés pour la région climatique centrale de l'Oklahoma. Une amélioration de la méthode de calcul est proposée. Le calcul de ce nouvel indice utilise un nombre fixe de stations et fait appel à une méthode d'estimation des données manquantes. L'estimation des valeurs manquantes permet de disposer d'un jeu de données complet, ce qui augmente la représentativité de l'indice. Les moyennes mensuelles des valeurs absolues des différences entre l'indice NCDC et l'indice proposé sont comprises entre 6 % (mai) et 13 % (août) des précipitations moyennes et entre 9 % (novembre) et 24 % (août) des écart-types mensuels. Ces valeurs démontrent que les problèmes liés à la méthode de calcul d'un indice pluviométrique mensuel régional utilisée par le NCDC peuvent être importants. Les résultats de recherches sur la variabilité temporelle des précipitations utilisant un indice pluviométrique régional devraient être interprétés en connaissance de ces différences.The NCDC monthly precipitation index is computed as a simple average of the monthly precipitation at several stations within a climate division. The influences of the discontinuities in records used by NCDC are quantified for the central climate division of Oklahoma. An improvement of the calculation method is proposed. The number of stations used is fixed and the missing monthly data values are filled. The monthly averages of the absolute values of the differences between the two indices vary from 6 % (May) to 13 % (August) of the mean monthly precipitation and from 9 % (November) to 24 % (August) of their mean temporal variations. These values demonstrate that the discontinuities in station records of the NCDC divisional precipitation index can be relevant and that research results on regional precipitation variability should be interpreted with consideration of the approximation errors introduced

Proximal sensing for soil carbon accounting

Maintaining or increasing soil organic carbon (C) is vital for securing food production and for mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, climate change, and land degradation. Some land management practices in cropping, grazing, horticultural, and mixed farming systems can be used to increase organic C in soil, but to assess their effectiveness, we need accurate and cost-efficient methods for measuring and monitoring the change. To determine the stock of organic C in soil, one requires measurements of soil organic C concentration, bulk density, and gravel content, but using conventional laboratory-based analytical methods is expensive. Our aim here is to review the current state of proximal sensing for the development of new soil C accounting methods for emissions reporting and in emissions reduction schemes. We evaluated sensing techniques in terms of their rapidity, cost, accuracy, safety, readiness, and their state of development. The most suitable method for measuring soil organic C concentrations appears to be visible-near-infrared (vis-NIR) spectroscopy and, for bulk density, active gamma-ray attenuation. Sensors for measuring gravel have not been developed, but an interim solution with rapid wet sieving and automated measurement appears useful. Field-deployable, multi-sensor systems are needed for cost-efficient soil C accounting. Proximal sensing can be used for soil organic C accounting, but the methods need to be standardized and procedural guidelines need to be developed to ensure proficient measurement and accurate reporting and verification. These are particularly important if the schemes use financial incentives for landholders to adopt management practices to sequester soil organic C. We list and discuss requirements for developing new soil C accounting methods based on proximal sensing, including requirements for recording, verification, and auditing

Patient–physician communication concerning participation in cancer chemotherapy trials

Cancer patients demand a high level of involvement in decisions concerning treatment. Many patients are informed about experimental trials, and especially the first consultation may be crucial for the future communication and treatment process. Patients with nonresectable non-small-cell lung cancer or colorectal cancer informed about experimental chemotherapy completed a questionnaire on satisfaction with the communication process, general attitude towards experimental treatments, the substance of information, and personal contact with the physician following their first consultation in a medical oncology unit. Physicians completed a questionnaire on their perception of the patients’ satisfaction. Among 68 physician–cancer patient pairs, 29 patients were informed on chemotherapy in randomised trials and 39 in nonrandomised studies. The general attitude towards experimental treatment was positive or very positive in 71% of patients. Information on the treatment was perceived as completely adequate in 93% of patients informed on randomised and in 67% informed on nonrandomised trials. Physicians underestimated the patients’ satisfaction with the overall communication process, the personal contact, the patients’ perceived sufficiency of the specific treatment information and their ability to decide on study entry. In conclusion, considerable differences were observed between patients informed about experimental chemotherapy in randomised and nonrandomised trials, both with respect to their perception of how adequate the information on the specific treatments were, and whether it was sufficient for decisions on study entry. This study type effect should be accounted for in future evaluations of communication and patient satisfaction. The data also support the fact that cancer patients have a desire for and ability to understand rather detailed and comprehensive treatment information

European legislation impedes critical care research and fails to protect patients' rights

The European Clinical Trials Directive requires an informed consent from the patient or a proxy in drug trials. Although informed consent is a valuable tool to protect patients' rights in clinical trials, this requirement largely impedes research in critical care settings, and if pursued in this context, it does not provide the patient with adequate protection. Instead of insisting on informed consent, we suggest that the focus should be shifted towards two other ethically relevant elements in human experimentation: risk assessment and selection of research subjects. When reviewing protocols in which a waiver of consent is deemed necessary, the Ethical Review Board should ensure that non-therapeutic risks are minimal, that the research is specifically designed to benefit critically ill patients, and that it cannot be conducted under circumstances where an informed consent can be obtained. If the European Directive is changed accordingly, this permits clinical trials in critical care settings, while adequate protection from risky non-therapeutic procedures is ensured and exploitation of the patient as an easily accessible research subject is prevented

Evolving thermal thresholds explain the distribution of temperature sex reversal in an Australian dragon lizard

Aim: Species with temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) are particularly vulnerable to climate change because a resultant skew in population sex ratio can have severe demographic consequences and increase vulnerability to local extinction. The Australian central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) has a thermosensitive ZZ male/ZW female system of genetic sex determination (GSD). High incubation temperatures cause reversal of the ZZ genotype to a viable female phenotype. Nest temperatures in the wild are predicted to vary on a scale likely to produce heterogeneity in the occurrence of sex reversal, and so we predict that sex reversal will correlate positively with inferred incubation conditions. Location: Mainland Australia. Methods: Wild-caught specimens of P. vitticeps vouchered in museum collections and collected during targeted field trips were genotypically and phenotypically sexed to determine the distribution of sex reversal across the species range. To determine whether environmental conditions or genetic structure can explain this distribution, we infer the incubation conditions experienced by each individual and apply a multi-model inference approach to determine which conditions associate with sex reversal. Further, we conduct reduced representation sequencing on a subset of specimens to characterize the population structure of this broadly distributed species. Results: Here we show that sex reversal in this widespread Australian dragon lizard is spatially restricted to the eastern part of the species range. Neither climatic variables during the inferred incubation period nor geographic population genetic structure explain this disjunct distribution of sex reversal. The main source of genetic variation arose from isolation by distance across the species range. Main conclusions: We propose that local genetic adaptation in the temperature threshold for sex reversal can counteract the sex-reversing influence of high incubation temperatures in P. vitticeps. Our study demonstrates that complex evolutionary processes need to be incorporated into modelling biological responses to future climate scenarios