POLITICHE DI AMMISSIONE E GESTIONE DEI FLUSSI MIGRATORI DA LAVORO IN ITALIA DALLA TURCO-NAPOLITANO AD OGGI.

L'obiettivo di questo elaborato è quello di analizzare gli strumenti di cui si è dotata l'Italia al fine di regolare i flussi immigratori da lavoro. Dall'analisi svolta emerge la difficoltà dei governi italiani ad abbandonare una gestione emergenziale e contingente del fenomeno in favore di una maggiore consapevolezza di fronte all'immigrazione, in generale, e quella economica in particolare, in quanto elemento strutturale del tessuto socio-economico italiano. Le difficoltà oggettive, incontrate nella stesura dell'elaborato, sono frutto della complessità del fenomeno di per sé di natura transnazionale e che coinvolge una moltitudine di soggetti, oltre a presentare molteplici aspetti, da quelli socio-economici a quelli prettamente politici, fortemente intrecciati tra loro. Data la complessità di questo versante della politica migratoria, ho scelto una chiave di lettura storica, in quanto permette di evidenziare il profondo legame tra la discussione politica, caratterizzata da una forte polarizzazione ideologica, e gli interventi attuati in questa materia. All'interno di questi equilibri s'inserisce, inoltre, il crescente ruolo dell'Unione Europea che chiede, nonostante le resistenze dei singoli Stati, di rinunciare a una porzione di sovranità col fine di creare una politica migratoria comune. Nel primo capitolo vengono analizzati l'origine del fenomeno e la nascita della politica migratoria in Italia. Con l'approvazione della legge Turco-Napolitano nel 1998, e il conseguente raggruppamento delle leggi all'interno del Testo Unico, l'Italia cerca di dotarsi di una legge organica in materia migratoria. Il sistema è incentrato sulla chiamata nominativa del lavoratore ancora all'estero, che avviene secondo i limiti numerici definiti dalla programmazione dei flussi ed attuati attraverso il cosiddetto decreto-flussi. Questo meccanismo dimostra, fin dalla nascita, notevoli inadeguatezze e carenze, per cui si deve ricorrere sistematicamente a strumenti di regolarizzazione ex post di una presenza irregolare che tende a riprodursi, anche a causa del lavoro sommerso che funge da potente fattore d'attrazione dei flussi, e tutto questo perché, sia i datori di lavoro che i lavoratori immigrati, non trovano conveniente utilizzare i canali d'ingresso regolari. Nel secondo capitolo il punto di partenza è rappresentato dalla riforma attuata dalla legge Bossi-Fini nel 2001. Tale legge è frutto della nuova maggioranza di centro-destra che fa dell'immigrazione un tema cruciale per raccogliere consensi, associandola a situazioni problematiche di sicurezza e ordine pubblico. La legge interviene in maniera sostanziale sui meccanismi di ammissione, inasprendo le condizioni di ingresso con l'introduzione del “contratto di soggiorno” (che subordina la presenza alla disponibilità di un'occupazione lavorativa) e precarizzando il soggiorno dei regolari, dimezzando la durata dei permessi. Ai fattori interni si aggiunge l'influenza dell'Unione Europea. L'allargamento verso i paesi dell'Est rappresenta l'apice delle carenze del meccanismo di ammissione: una larga parte degli ingressi si sottrae al potere regolatorio del sistema delle quote, dal momento che buona parte dei flussi si compone di soggetti che non necessitano più di alcun permesso di soggiorno. La medesima incapacità emerge anche con il presentarsi della crisi economica alla fine del 2008. Infatti, nonostante la drastica riduzione delle quote, i flussi, prevalentemente diretti al servizio alle famiglie, si mantengono elevati e subiscono una battuta d'arresto solo a partire dal 2011. Nel terzo capitolo vengono presi in considerazione i provvedimenti più recenti: l'Accordo d'Integrazione all'interno del Piano per l'Integrazione e la Carta Blu sono frutto del crescente ruolo dell'Unione Europea e dell'affermarsi del nuovo (e più impegnativo) concetto d'integrazione e, pertanto, rappresentano il tentativo dell'azione politica di adeguarsi ai principi della politica migratoria dell'Unione Europea. Tali provvedimenti, tuttavia, hanno suscitato perplessità e critiche, sia in termini ideologici che in termini di attuabilità concreta, data la mancata predisposizione di risorse aggiuntive necessarie. Il quadro che emerge è che l'Italia ha attratto ingenti flussi senza che a questi corrispondesse una crescita economica, e questo è frutto del potere d'attrazione costituito dai fattori socio-demografici, come la bassa natalità, l'invecchiamento della popolazione, l'evoluzione delle aspettative lavorative, soprattutto dei giovani. In conclusione i problemi rimangono aperti, anche se oggi meno visibili principalmente per due fattori. Il primo consiste nella mancanza di un dibattito politico e mediatico, nonché scientifico, causato dalla poca notiziabilità dell'immigrazione regolare, in favore degli aspetti più eclatanti e conflittuali. Il secondo invece è rappresentato dalla battuta d'arresto dei flussi di arrivo, che fa apparire il problema lontano. E così l'azione politica aspetta, finché non si presenterà la prossima emergenza

Genome Mining as an Alternative Way for Screening the Marine Organisms for Their Potential to Produce UV-Absorbing Mycosporine-like Amino Acid

Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) are small molecules with robust ultraviolet (UV)-absorbing capacities and a huge potential to be used as an environmentally friendly natural sunscreen. MAAs, temperature, and light-stable compounds demonstrate powerful photoprotective capacities and the ability to capture light in the UV-A and UV-B ranges without the production of damaging free radicals. The biotechnological uses of these secondary metabolites have been often limited by the small quantities restored from natural resources, variation in MAA expression profiles, and limited success in heterologous expression systems. Overcoming these obstacles requires a better understanding of MAA biosynthesis and its regulatory processes. MAAs are produced to a certain extent via a four-enzyme pathway, including genes encoding enzymes dehydroquinate synthase, enzyme O-methyltransferase, adenosine triphosphate grasp, and a nonribosomal peptide synthetase. However, there are substantial genetic discrepancies in the MAA genetic pathway in different species, suggesting further complexity of this pathway that is yet to be fully explored. In recent years, the application of genome-mining approaches allowed the identification of biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) that resulted in the discovery of many new compounds from unconventional sources. This review explores the use of novel genomics tools for linking BGCs and secondary metabolites based on the available omics data, including MAAs, and evaluates the potential of using novel genome-mining tools to reveal a cryptic potential for new bioproduct screening approaches and unrevealing new MAA producers

Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation of medicinal plants from the family rhamnaceae

Original Research Paper: Ectoine (1,4,5,6-tetrahydro-2-methyl-4-pyrimidinecarboxylic acid) biosynthetic genes (ect ABC) derived from the halophilic bacterium Halomonas elongata were introduced into tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) using an Agrobacterium-mediated gene-delivery system. Stable integration of the ectoine genes into the regenerated plant genomes was confirmed by PCR and Southern blot analyses. Expression of these genes was detected in the transgenic tomato plants by Northern blot analysis. The transgenic plants exhibited the normal growth characteristics of the non-transgenic plants. The concentration of ectoine increased with increasing salinity, and the increase was higher in the roots than in the leaves. The present data indicates that the turgor values of the ectoine transgenic tomato lines increased with increasing salt concentration. The data suggests that the accumulation of ectoine in transgenic tomato plants contributed to the maintenance of osmotic potential of the cells

Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids: Making the Foundation for Organic Personalised Sunscreens

The surface of the Earth is exposed to harmful ultraviolet radiation (UVR: 280–400 nm). Prolonged skin exposure to UVR results in DNA damage through oxidative stress due to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) are UV-absorbing compounds, found in many marine and freshwater organisms that have been of interest in use for skin protection. MAAs are involved in photoprotection from damaging UVR thanks to their ability to absorb light in both the UV-A (315–400 nm) and UV-B (280–315 nm) range without producing free radicals. In addition, by scavenging ROS, MAAs play an antioxidant role and suppress singlet oxygen-induced damage. Currently, there are over 30 different MAAs found in nature and they are characterised by different antioxidative and UV-absorbing capacities. Depending on the environmental conditions and UV level, up- or downregulation of genes from the MAA biosynthetic pathway results in seasonal fluctuation of the MAA content in aquatic species. This review will provide a summary of the MAA antioxidative and UV-absorbing features, including the genes involved in the MAA biosynthesis. Specifically, regulatory mechanisms involved in MAAs pathways will be evaluated for controlled MAA synthesis, advancing the potential use of MAAs in human skin protection

A method for extracting a high-quality RNA from Symbiodinium sp.

Good quality RNA is essential for a range of analyses including microarray and gene expression studies. A number of methods for RNA extraction from symbiotic dinoflagellates were assessed for their ability to recover a high-quality RNA applicable for evaluation of gene expression profiles. The recovery and quality of the obtained RNA were evaluated with respect to UV light absorbance profiles and automated microcapillary electrophoretic RNA separation. A modified RNA extraction procedure that combines two existing commercial kits, Trizol and Qiagen RNeasy kits, was efficiently employed for the recovery of a high-quality RNA under specific homogenization conditions. Cell homogenization using glass beads at the speed of 4,500 rpm for up to 6 min resulted in a good RNA recovery and preserved RNA integrity. A high-quality RNA obtained following the described procedure was successfully applied in reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and in quantitative PCR studies. Gene expression profiles were changed with RNA extraction procedure, with the highest transcript numbers at precise conditions of cell homogenization. RNA samples with RNA integrity number values from 6 and above were recommended for downstream applications. This sequence of RNA isolation and RNA evaluation represents a methodological improvement required for functional genomic studies in dinoflagellates

Extraction and analysis of Mycosporine-Like Amino Acids in marine algae

Marine organisms use mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) as biological sunscreens for the protection from damaging ultraviolet (UV) radiation and the prevention of oxidative stress. MAAs have been discovered in many different marine and freshwater species including cyanobacteria, fungi, and algae, but also in animals like cnidarian and fishes. Here, we describe a general method for the isolation and characterization of MAA compounds from red algae and symbiotic dinoflagellates isolated from coral hosts. This method is also suitable for the extraction and analyses of MAAs from a range of other algal and marine biota

Differential impact of heat stress on reef-building corals under different light conditions

Heat stress is an environmental factor that regularly challenges the well-being of living organisms. This study aims to examine the physiological changes happening in two reef-building coral species exposed to thermal stress under various light conditions. The two ecologically relevant heatwave scenarios were applied under ambient lights (high irradiance) and reduced light conditions (250 and < 10 μmol photons m s). Corals were exposed to elevated temperatures of 32°C (plus 6°) for a period of 1 up to 5 days corresponding to heatwaves reported on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) that were associated with coral bleaching. We monitored changes in the physiological performance of these two coral species by measuring symbionts and corals’ physiological parameters including symbiont density, levels of multiple algal pigments (chlorophyll a and peridinin), as well as the changes in the host protein concentration. During the short-term heat stress, both species were with stable physiological performance with the only exception of Stylophora pistillata under ambient lights. These results show that S. pistillata was negatively influenced by a synergistic effect of temperature and high irradiance resulting in the first signs of bleaching after only 24h of thermal stress. Exposure to prolonged thermal stress, characterised with a slower rate of temperature increase, affected both coral species investigated and resulted in bleaching mainly by day 5. Interestingly, severe light reduction

The Impact of Pesticides on Local Waterways: A Scoping Review and Method for Identifying Pesticides in Local Usage

Pesticides used in agriculture are widely considered to be the most cost-effective way to reduce undesirable plants and animal pests and increase crop yields. However, these economic benefits should be evaluated against any deleterious impacts on the natural environment and human health. While a great deal of attention is paid to the impact of agricultural runoff, more studies are needed on the impacts of pesticides on local waterways. The aim of this study was to: (i) develop a methodology to determine which pesticides were being used in local agriculture in the Byron Shire, Australia, and (ii) search the literature for evidence of the impact of these chemicals on local waterways. After a comprehensive search involving multiple government databases, three herbicides with potentially high toxicity on the aquatic ecosystems and humans, which are used for the treatment of crops cultivated on the agricultural land in the Byron Shire, Australia, were selected for this review: bromoxynil, diquat and paraquat. In the systematic scoping review, two databases were searched (Scopus and Web of Science) for publications between January 2008 and April 2019. From 160 articles identified, 36 papers were selected for inclusion. The evidence of harmful effects at realistic field concentrations (concentrations that are within the recommended safety range for use in the environment) was found for all selected herbicides, but not on all organisms. In aquatic environments, diquat was found to be toxic to snails and bromoxynil to microalgae. The clearest and most consistent evidence was found for paraquat. At realistic field concentrations, paraquat: (i) severely inhibited healthy bacterial growth (E. coli), (ii) distorted tropical freshwater plankton communities, and (iii) increased fish kills (common carp) three times more than the weed (water hyacinth) that it was employed to control. Of particular concern is that paraquat has been banned from sale in the European Union and many countries around the world but remains available in Australia and is likely in use in the Byron Shire. While there are existing Australian government regulations restricting the use of paraquat in agriculture, further work is required to scope the extent of its use, the effectiveness of these regulations and the amount of paraquat entering the environment. This study provides a methodology that can be used to identify pesticides that are likely to be in local use and to identify evidence of any negative impacts on the health of local waterways

Directed evolution of mammalian cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in xenobiotic metabolism

Directed evolution of cytochrome P450 enzymes represents an attractive means of generating novel catalysts for specialized applications. Xenobiotic-metabolizing P450s are particularly well suited to this approach due to their inherent wide substrate specificity. In the present study, a novel method for DNA shuffling was developed using an initial restriction enzyme digestion step, followed by elimination of long parental sequences by size-selective filtration. P450 2C forms were subjected to a single round of shuffling then coexpressed with reductase in E. coli. A sample (54 clones) of the resultant library was assessed for sequence diversity, hemo- and apoprotein expression, and activity towards the substrate indole. All mutants showed a different RFLP pattern compared to all parents, suggesting that the library was free from contamination by parental forms. Haemoprotein expression was detectable in 45/54 (83%) of the mutants sampled. Indigo production was less than or comparable to the activities of one or more of the parental P450s, but three mutants showed indirubin production in excess of that seen with any parental form, representing a gain of function. In conclusion, a method is presented for the effective shuffling of P450 sequences to generate diverse libraries of mutant P450s containing a high proportion of correctly folded hemoprotein, and minimal contamination with parental forms

Differential Regulation by Heat Stress of Novel Cytochrome P450 Genes from the Dinoflagellate Symbionts of Reef-Building Corals▿

Exposure to heat stress has been recognized as one of the major factors leading to the breakdown of the coral-alga symbiosis and coral bleaching. Here, we describe the presence of three new cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes from the reef-building coral endosymbiont Symbiodinium (type C3) and changes in their expression during exposure to severe and moderate heat stress conditions. Sequence analysis of the CYP C-terminal region and two conserved domains, the “PERF” and “heme-binding” domains, confirmed the separate identities of the CYP genes analyzed. In order to explore the effects of different heat stress scenarios, samples of the scleractinian coral Acropora millepora were exposed to elevated temperatures incrementally over an 18-h period (rapid thermal stress) and over a 120-h period (gradual thermal stress). After 18 h of gradual heating and incubation at 26°C, the Symbiodinium CYP mRNA pool was approximately 30% larger, while a further 6°C increase to a temperature above the average sea temperature (29°C after 72 h) resulted in a 2- to 4-fold increase in CYP expression. Both rapid heat stress and gradual heat stress at 32°C resulted in 50% to 90% decreases in CYP gene transcript abundance. Consequently, the initial upregulation of expression of CYP genes at moderately elevated temperatures (26°C and 29°C) was followed by a decrease in expression under the greater thermal stress conditions at 32°C. These findings indicate that in the coral-alga symbiosis under heat stress conditions there is production of chemical stressors and/or transcriptional factors that regulate the expression of genes, such as the genes encoding cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, that are involved in the first line of an organism's chemical defense