Straits, Passages and Chokepoints : A Maritime Geostrategy of Petroleum Distribution

The transportation of petroleum represents one of the most strategically important circulations of resources in the global economy. Its role cannot be overstated. Yet, petroleum has become a “strategically invisible” commodity as its flow has been continuous with limited, but eye-opening, disruptions such as the First Energy Crisis is 1973. Petroleum supplies are virtually taken for granted. Since approximately two-thirds of the world’s petroleum production is shipped by sea, there are inherent distribution constraints, which require navigating through straits and passages; chokepoints of maritime circulation. This paper presents an overview of the geography of oil supply and demand, and the strategic issues that are linked to its maritime circulation. Chokepoints are perceived as resources, the value of which varies according to degree of use. As the era of petroleum domination draws to a close, the importance and vulnerability of strategic passages will increase. Their ability to handle additional traffic appears to be limited, implying that future energy crises or oil shortages are more likely to be attributable to the challenges of distribution.Le transport du pétrole représente l’une des plus importantes circulations de ressources au sein de l’économie mondiale. Son rôle ne peut être exagéré. Cependant, le pétrole est devenu un produit de base «stratégiquement invisible» puisque sa circulation a toujours été continue, avec des ruptures alarmantes, mais limitées, telles que le premier choc pétrolier de 1973. L’offre de pétrole est pratiquement prise pour acquis. Puisque les deux tiers de la production pétrolière mondiale sont acheminés par voie maritime, il existe d’inévitables contraintes de distribution, parmi lesquelles l’utilisation d’un ensemble limité de détroits et passages: les goulots d’étranglement de la circulation maritime. Cet article se penche sur la géographie de l’offre et de la demande de pétrole, de même que sur les problèmes stratégiques liés à sa circulation maritime. Les goulots d’étranglement sont perçus en tant que ressources dont la valeur varie en fonction de leur niveau d’utilisation. Alors que la suprématie du pétrole tire à sa fin, l’importance et la vulnérabilité des passages stratégiques risquent de s’accroître en conséquence. Leur capacité d’admission des trafics supplémentaires apparaît limitée, ce qui implique que les futurs chocs (ou ruptures) pétroliers seront vraisemblablement liés à la problématique de sa circulation

Container Port Selection by Freight Forwarders in Central and Eastern Europe Hinterland: the Case of the Czech Republic

Containerization and port regionalization strategies have impacted the level of port competition in contestable hinterlands. However, the nature of this competition usually involves a single maritime range and well-defined transport corridors. The European context has underlined a complex dual range competition dynamic particularly involving the Northern Range and the Mediterranean. How these dynamics pan out in Central and Eastern Europe has received much less attention but will impact the growth prospects of ports on both ranges. This research study evaluates the importance of port selection factors by freight forwarders in the landlocked Czech Republic. It is based on a survey of key actors, particularly how specific carriers and ports are selected and which transport chains are used. The importance and stability of the factors are analysed within the framework of four constraint layers – the location layer; the infrastructure layer; the transport layer and the logistics layer. The key factors supporting the dominance of the port of Hamburg with the Czech Republic are discussed in addition with the potential of the North Adriatic Port Range to service this contestable hinterland. Hamburg is characterized with lower inland haulage costs, total shipment costs and the highest inland rail frequency compared to competing ports such as Bremerhaven or Koper. These factors are perceived as the key determinants by freight forwarders. Therefore, evidence underlines that the share of Hamburg is likely to remain unchanged in coming years and that Northern Range ports are dominant to service most of the Central and Eastern European hinterland. The paper supplements the literature with the analysis of primary data from business practitioners regarding port selection strategies by international trade intermediaries and fills the research gap for the region of Central and Eastern Europe

The Competitiveness of Ports in Emerging Markets : The case of Durban, South Africa

This report provides a synthesis of main findings from the OECD Port-Cities Programme, created in 2010 in order to assess the impact of ports on their cities and provide policy recommendations to increase the positive impacts of ports on their cities. This Programme was directed by Olaf Merk, Administrator Port-Cities within the OECD Public Governance and Territorial Development Directorate. This synthesis report was directed and written by Olaf Merk; it draws on the work of a number of other contributors: César Ducruet, Jasper Cooper, Jing Li, Ihnji Jon, Maren Larsen and Lucie Billaud. The report has benefited from comments from Bill Tompson, Nils-Axel Braathen, Jane Korinek, Nicolas Mat and Juliette Cerceau. The synthesis report is based on findings from a series of OECD Port-Cities case studies. Such case studies were conducted for Le Havre/Rouen/Paris/Caen (France), Hamburg (Germany), Helsinki (Finland), Marseille (France), Mersin (Turkey), Rotterdam/Amsterdam (the Netherlands), Antofagasta (Chile), Bratislava/Komárno/Štúrova (Slovak Republic), Durban (South Africa) and Shanghai (China). Within the framework of these studies, study visits to these port-cities were conducted, which included a series of interviews with the port-city related actors and stakeholders in these places. The OECD Port-Cities Programme also benefited from visits to the following ports and port-cities and discussion with port-related actors in the following port-cities: Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Singapore, Casablanca, Venice, Trieste, Genoa, Valparaíso, Varna, Gdansk, Koper, Vienna, Antwerp, Felixstowe, Los Angeles, Long Beach, Sydney and Newcastle (Australia). Contributions and inputs into the OECD Port-Cities case studies and related working papers were provided by César Ducruet, Elvira Haezendonck, Michael Dooms, Patrick Dubarle, Markus Hesse, Géraldine Planque, Theo Notteboom, José Tongzon, Jörg Jocker, Oguz Bagis, Angela Bergantino, Claude Comtois, Nicolas Winicki, Thai Thanh Dang, Claudio Ferrari, Alessio Tei, Anna Bottasso, Maurizio Conti, Salvador Saz, Leandro Garcia-Menéndez, Zhen Hong, Zhao Nan, Angela Xu Mingying, Xie Wenqing, Du Xufeng, Wang Jinggai, Jing Li, Matthieu Bordes, Rachel Silberstein, Xiao Wang, Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Jasper Cooper, Marten van den Bossche, Carla Jong, Christelle Larsonneur, Walter Manshanden, Martijn Dröes, Evgueny Poliakov, Olli-Pekka Hilmola, Charlotte Lafitte, Caroline Guillet, Léonie Claeyman, Suzanne Chatelier. The Programme has been enriched through the interaction with these experts. Within the framework of the Programme, three different workshops in Paris were organised and benefited from presentations by: César Ducruet, Markus Hesse, Elvira Haezendonck, Claudio Ferrari, Jan Egbertsen, Ingo Fehrs, Stijn Effting, Michael Vanderbeek, Alessio Tei, Philippe Deiss, Birgit Liodden, Johan Woxenius, Hyong Mo Jeon, Dimitrios Theologitis, Carla Jong, Lorene Grandidier, Dominique Lebreton, Claude Comtois, Marten van den Bossche, Matt Bogdan, Alice Liu, Jan Green Rebstock. Within the framework of the Programme, the Administrator has provided presentations and interventions in conferences organised by: European Committee of the Regions (COTER), European Seaport Organisation (ESPO), Moroccan Association for Logistics (Amlog), International Association of Ports and Harbors (IAPH), Port of Long Beach Board of Harbor Commissioners, City of Shenzhen, Korean Transport Institute (KOTI), Korean Maritime Institute (KMI), French Association of Town Planners (FNAU), Italian Association of Transport Economists (SIET), World Conference of Transport Research Society (WCTRS-SIG2), Maersk, Port Finance International, BSR Clean Cargo Working Group, Infrastructure Australia, International Association Cities Ports (AIVP), Inter American Committee for Ports, International Transport Forum (ITF), Florence School of Regulation, Cargo Edições Lda, Logistics Portugal, International Forum on Shipping, Ports and Airports (IFSPA), Port of Amsterdam, Port of Rotterdam, Port of Hamburg, Université du Sud Toulon-Var, Colloque Axe Seine Acte II. The Programme has benefited from the support of: the Netherlands Ministry of Economy, City of Rotterdam, City of Amsterdam, Port of Amsterdam, Çukurova Development Agency, City of Helsinki, Port of Marseille, Slovak Ministry of Transport, Construction and Regional Development, Slovak Ministry of Foreign Affairs, City of Hamburg, Transnet South Africa, Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur Region, Bouches du Rhône Department, Syndicat mixte du Schéma de Cohérence Territoriale Ouest Étang de Berre, Communauté d’agglomération Marseille Provence Métropole, City of Marseille, Chamber of Commerce and Industry Marseille Provence, the Agence d’Urbanisme de Marseille, the Union Maritime et Fluviale, l’Agence d’Urbanisme de la Région du Havre et de l’Estuaire de la Seine (AURH), l’Agence d’Études d’Urbanisme de Caen Métropole (AUCAME), l’Atelier Parisien d’Urbanisme (APUR), l’Institut d’Aménagement et d’Urbanisme de la région d’Île de France (IAU IDF), l’Agence d'Urbanisme et de Développement de la Seine Aval (AUDAS), la Ville du Havre, la Communauté d’Agglomération Havraise (CODAH), la Communauté de l’Agglomération Rouen Elbeuf Austreberthe (CREA), le Grand Port Maritime du Havre (GPMH), le Grand Port Maritime de Rouen (GPMR), Ports de Paris. The report, as well as the Port-City case studies and related thematic papers can be downloaded from the OECD website: www.oecd.org/regional/portcities Further enquiries about this work in this area should be addressed to: Olaf Merk ([email protected]) of the OECD Public Governance and Territorial Development Directorate

Automated Transfer Management Systems and the Intermodal Performance of North American Freight Distribution

For capacity, energy and environmental reasons, intermodal transportation is widely regarded as the preferable option for inland freight distribution. But because of the relatively high embedded costs, intermodal rail is currently only an attractive option for containerized goods carried over long distances. Transfers that in theory should entail only a few operations at a terminal in reality require multiple operations. This paper argues that by incorporating new terminal designs and an automated transfer management system (ATMS) at terminals and distribution centers, the resulting efficiency advances and productivity gains could significantly improve the economics for both long and short haul intermodal movements, including port shuttle trains. This system not only could significantly lower fixed costs and make intermodal more price competitive, but improve time and reliability to make intermodal more service competitive as well

Drivers for Outside-In port hinterland integration in Latin America: The case of Veracruz, Mexico

This paper examines the spatial and institutional characteristics of inland port development in Latin America, through an analysis of a detailed case study of the port of Veracruz in Mexico. It explores the spatial distribution of seaports and inland ports as well as the issues of customs clearance, rail regulation, cargo security and land acquisition, before discussing conflicting models of development depending on the priorities of inland and port actors. A supplementary aim of the paper is thus to develop a conceptual model of directional development in a geographical context of an emerging economy which traditionally has suffered from the absence of integrated policy frameworks for transport and logistics, leading to a lack of infrastructure investment and several constraints on hinterland accessibility. Findings reveal that port actors (both port authorities and terminal operators) are being proactive in response to a changing transport and logistics environment, in a setting where railway regulation and cargo security play critical roles in establishing hinterland integration. Reform to customs clearance processes is ongoing to allow more effective container flow management between the port and the hinterland, but the major obstacle to implementing an efficient loop is the fragmentation of the rail sector in Mexico