Study areas and sampling design in Amazonas State, Brazil (reproduced, with permission, from Google Earth™).

<p>(A) Benjamin Constant municipality. (B) Guanabara II community. (C) Noval Aliança community. Replicates of each land-use treatment were proportionally distributed inside the grids according to the availability of distinct land-use systems in the study area. Each sample point was comprised of three pitfall traps for the measurement of community attributes and one experimental dung unit for the measurement of functions <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0057786#pone.0057786-Braga1" target="_blank">[31]</a>.</p

Total number of individuals, by species, captured in different land-use systems in Benjamin Constant, AM, Brazil.

<p>Mean body weight of dung beetle species, the number of beetles used to calculate mean body weight (<i>n</i>) and body length category (‘Small’ for species <10 mm long and ‘Large’ for species ≥10 mm long) are also shown. Land-use systems are: primary forest (PF), agroforest (AF), secondary forest (SF), agriculture (AG) and pasture (PA).</p

Experimental arena used for measuring three ecological functions of dung beetles.

<p>(A) The experimental dung pile in the center of the arena should be protected from rain. (A1) Plastic beads of different sizes were placed within the dung as seed mimics. (B) General setup of the experimental arena (see main text for description).</p

Mean values of (A) abundance, biomass and richness of dung beetles, (B) amount of soil excavated and dung removed, and (C) secondary dispersal of small, medium and large seed mimics.

<p>Land-use systems sampled were: primary forest (PF), secondary forest (SF), agroforest (AF), agriculture (AG) and pasture (PA). Different letters above bars indicate statistically significant differences (p<0.05) among land-use systems. Error bars represent ±1 SEM.</p

Effects of a Possible Pollinator Crisis on Food Crop Production in Brazil

<div><p>Animal pollinators contribute to human food production and security thereby ensuring an important component of human well-being. The recent decline of these agents in Europe and North America has aroused the concern of a potential global pollinator crisis. In order to prioritize efforts for pollinator conservation, we evaluated the extent to which food production depends on animal pollinators in Brazil—one of the world’s agriculture leaders—by comparing cultivated area, produced volume and yield value of major food crops that are pollinator dependent with those that are pollinator non-dependent. In addition, we valued the ecosystem service of pollination based on the degree of pollinator dependence of each crop and the consequence of a decline in food production to the Brazilian Gross Domestic Product and Brazilian food security. A total of 68% of the 53 major food crops in Brazil depend to some degree on animals for pollination. Pollinator non-dependent crops produce a greater volume of food, mainly because of the high production of sugarcane, but the cultivated area and monetary value of pollinator dependent crops are higher (59% of total cultivated area and 68% of monetary value). The loss of pollination services for 29 of the major food crops would reduce production by 16.55–51 million tons, which would amount to 4.86–14.56 billion dollars/year, and reduce the agricultural contribution to the Brazilian GDP by 6.46%– 19.36%. These impacts would be largely absorbed by family farmers, which represent 74.4% of the agricultural labor force in Brazil. The main effects of a pollinator crisis in Brazil would be felt by the poorer and more rural classes due to their lower income and direct or exclusive dependence on this ecosystem service.</p></div

Brazilian <i>monthly per capita</i> consumption of products derived from pollinator dependent and non-dependent crops, according to household income class.

<p>Brazilian <i>monthly per capita</i> consumption of products derived from pollinator dependent and non-dependent crops, according to household income class.</p

Classification of crops according to their dependence on pollinators and production decrease in the total pollinator absence in two hypothetical scenarios of pollinator dependence of crops (optimistic and pessimistic).

<p>Classification of crops according to their dependence on pollinators and production decrease in the total pollinator absence in two hypothetical scenarios of pollinator dependence of crops (optimistic and pessimistic).</p

Summary of pollinator dependence of the 53 most produced food crops in Brazil.

<p>Crops that produce food from fruits/seeds or vegetative parts and benefit somehow from animal pollinators were considered <i>dependent</i>, and crops that do not benefit at all were considered <i>non-dependent</i>.</p

Absolute and relative values of pollinator dependent and pollinator non-dependent crops in Brazil.

<p>Absolute and relative values of pollinator dependent and pollinator non-dependent crops in Brazil.</p