Drudgery reduction for women in agriculture sector in Nepal: An analytical study

Analysis of rural womens’ livelihood identifies a ‘triple burden’ of work to in the productive, reproductive and social spheres. Feminization is the common phenomenon in Nepal where the roles of men and women are unbalanced at household and community level. Due to the migration of economically active men to other countries and urban area for better jobs, the agricultural labor is being increasingly feminized. This paper assesses factors influencing the women drudgery in agriculture sector, possible interventions and recommendation for reducing such drudgery. It consisted desk review, key informant interview and stakeholders’ consortium meetings to collect information, and triangulation of findings during 2017-2019 at regional and national levels. The study suggests that the workload of women (e.g., time and energy) in the farming activities can be reduced in two ways: (1) making existing tasks easier or increasing the productivity of existing labor, or (2) changing farm practices with new technology. Changes in the existing practice or introduction of new technology often reduces the workload of women in terms of both time and energy, but it requires external inputs and extra knowledge and coaching. Such interventions must consider the aspects of wider acceptance, economic viability and environmental friendliness. Further, the mechanization of agricultural tools and technology have alleviated the burden of tasks traditionally handled by both men and women in the sector. This paper recommends major tools, techniques and skills for women drudgery reduction in agriculture sector in Nepal that will be equally applicable in Asian region

Value Chain Analysis of Large Cardamom in Taplejung District of Nepal

This study assessed the value chain analysis of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb) in Taplejung district, Nepal and explored the functional linkage and upgrading strategies among the key value chain actors. One hundred and sixty farmers were surveyed purposely along with 5 local and district level traders, 5 regional level traders and exporters and 5 enablers who were sampled using rapid market appraisal in March 2018. The study presents a comparative analysis among large holders (n=72) and smallholders (n=88) large cardamom farmers using SPSS and MS-Excel. The majority of farmers used suckers as propagating materials which was a major source of disease conduction. 62.5% of farmers adopted traditional dryers for curing, which reduced the quality of large cardamom whereas about 30% of them used improved dryers for curing that enhanced quality. The majority of farmers had not adopted value addition practices like tail cutting, grading and packaging which were carried out at trader level. Large cardamom prices were normally determined by the export market of India. The average land area of large cardamom per household was 21.56 ropani with 36.74 ropani for the large landholder farmers and 9.14 ropani for the smallholders. The key problems faced by farmers and traders were high price swing, lack of disease-free propagating materials, reliance on the Indian market, aged orchards, shrinking productivity, and minimal collaboration among the chain actors. Therefore, adoption of Good Management Practices (GMPs)- upgraded bhattis, transfer of tail cutting technology and storage management, along with value addition activities like grading (color and size), tail cutting and packaging need to be adopted with strong adherence to export quality. This study revealed that necessary action needs to be taken to maintain a high level of collaboration among the value chain actors thereby increasing the value chain efficiency of Nepalese large cardamom

Economics of fish production at Chitwan district, Nepal

A study was conducted in 2016 to analyze the economics of fish production at Chitwan District of Nepal. Three study sites: East, West and South part of Chitwan were selected purposively. A total of 90 households, 30 from each study site were selected randomly and were interviewed by using pre-tested semi structured questionnaire. Secondary data needed for the study were obtained from DADO, MOAD, NARC and other related organizations working on fisheries and aquaculture sector. Descriptive statistics and extended Cobb Douglas production function was used to accomplish the study objectives for which MS-Excel and SPSS 16 were used. The B/C ratio is obtained dividing the gross return by total variable cost incurred. The total cost of production per ha of the pond area was Rs. 743798 per year with 79 and 21 percent variable and fixed cost components, respectively. Feed cost (28 %) was largest cost item followed by cost for labour (25 %), fingerlings (10 %), maintenance (6 %), manure cum fertilizers (5 %), fuel cum energy (3 %) and limestone and others (2%). The average gross return and net profit realized per ha were Rs. 1223934 and Rs. 480135 respectively. The cost, return and profit were calculated to be highest for east Chitwan with highest B/C ratio followed by west Chitwan and south Chitwan. The B/C ratio for the district was found to be 1.63. The return to scale was found to be decreasing with value of 0.654 indicating that 1 percent increment in all the inputs included in the function will increase income by 0.654 percent. Production function analysis, including five variables, showed significant effect of human labour, fingerlings and fuel cum energy cost but feed and manure cum fertilizers cost were insignificant

Cost-benefit analysis and resource use efficiency of rice production system in different agriculture landscapes in Chitwan district, Nepal

The study was conducted to determine the cost-benefit analysis and resource use efficiency of the rice production system in different agriculture landscapes in the Chitwan district in 2018. The sample size of 102 rice-growing farmers out of 600 farmers, having an area of farm size greater than 0.5 hectares, was determined using Raosoft Inc. Software. A simple random sampling technique was used to collect 102 rice-growing household information in four municipalities (2 in plain and 2 in hilly area) using a semi-structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed using descriptive and statistical tools including Cobb-Douglas production function. Results showed that the use of inputs like seeds, chemical fertilizer and machinery like tractor were found significantly higher in the plain area whereas the use of inputs like labor, farmyard manure (FYM) and bullocks was found in higher in the hilly area. The costs of fertilizer, machinery, pesticide, and transportation were found higher in the plain area whereas the costs of seed, FYM, labor and bullocks were significantly higher in the hilly area. Production of rice per household was 1.87 ton whereas productivity was 5.2 ton/ha, gross profit was NRs. 41435and benefit-cost ratio was 1.59 in the plain area which was found significantly higher than the hilly area. The return to scale was found to be 0.48 which revealed that inputs used in rice production were ineffectively utilized in which organic fertilizer and labor resource were overused and seed, fertilizer, machinery and bullocks, pesticides and transportation were underused resources. The optimal allocation of these resources will increase the profitability of rice farming

Feminization of Agriculture in Nepal and its implications: Addressing Gender in Workload and Decision Making

The study assesses the two approaches of feminization: labor and managerial, and explores the implication of feminization in agricultural production in Gorkha and Chitwan district of Nepal. We examine the degree to which men, women or men and women jointly make agriculture-related decisions, and discuss the labor feminization and managerial feminization using five domains of the Women Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), relative to the degree to which women’s decision-making power relates to the feminization of agriculture leading to women empowerment and food security. The results revealed that the average workload for women (86.50 hours/week) was more than that for men (55.52 hours/week). Workload was found significantly affected by the total cultivated area (ha), gender of household head, occupation, number of livestock holdings, number of children, number of elders and household location.All aspects of operational and strategic decision making were dominated by jointly made decisions, except in the case of income utilization where female showed dominance. The implication of feminization in agriculture is reflected by reduction in cropping cycle, lower productivity of cereals and vegetables which led to food insecurity by own production. The income from remittance was observed to be mainly used for consumption purposes to ensure food security. It appears that the feminization of agriculture leads to women playing not only important role in decision-making but also more responsibilities and heavier workloads without necessarily resulting in empowerment and improvement in well-being

Brain drain of agriculture and veterinary graduates to abroad: evidence from Nepal

Abstract Background Though the migration of skilled manpower is common all over the world, it has created serious problem and huge loss to least developed countries like Nepal. Most of the skilled manpowers are attracted toward developed countries through better incentives, scholarships and better services and facilities. Although remittance has significant and high contribution to national gross domestic product but in long term, it reduces human welfare and economic growth of the nation. Nowadays, migration of agriculture and veterinary graduates is increasing day by day resulting in scarcity of skilled manpower in this sector. This paper aimed to assess the magnitude and determinants of the brain drain of Nepali agriculture and veterinary graduates to abroad, showing that brain drain (or high-skill migration) is becoming dominant pattern of international migration and a major aspect of globalization. Methods Web-based structural survey questionnaire was used to assess push and pull factors to migrate abroad and factors determination among already brain drained respondents and students those studying agriculture and veterinary in Nepal. The total of 450 samples were obtained from online survey as well as few face-to face interviews in July 2015. Descriptive analysis and Logit model were used to derive necessary inferences using Stata software. Results The study revealed that about 52% of students intend to go abroad, either to pursue higher study or for better job opportunities and better livelihood. Poor higher education system in Nepal (42.7%), socioeconomic condition (29.8%) and desire to go abroad (25%) were major push factors toward brain drain, whereas high income and better living standard (29.7%), better job and working environment (25.6%), family future security (17.4%), personal freedom (9.9%) and political stability in abroad (10.7%) were found major pulling factors of skilled manpower to abroad from Nepal. Logit model revealed that the age of respondent and household member migration to abroad were positive and significant determining factors for brain drain, whereas total household income has negative impact on brain drain controlling other socioeconomic variables. Conclusion This study identified that majority of the students studying agriculture and veterinary sciences in Nepal are willing to go abroad either for better higher education or for better living standard and job opportunities. This suggests that brain drain is individual feature in least developed country like Nepal and government should formulate better policy to control brain drain considering all consequences that can hamper economic growth of the country

Understanding Farmers' Perceptions and Adaptations to Climate Change and Variability in Rice Production at the Kaski and Chitwan Districts, Nepal

This study was conducted to access perception of farmers about climate change particularly to access the effect of climatic variables on yield of rice crops based on regression model for 1999-2013 climatic data and yield data. The other objective include to learn adaptation strategies to climate change and assess factor influencing adaptation strategies adopted by farmers in hill (Kaski) and terai (Chitwan) of Nepal. Primary data were obtained through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and field survey. Descriptive statistics, time series regression model, logit model and seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) model were used. About 87.5 percent of the respondent perceived the change in weather parameter such as temperature and rainfall. A majority of respondents (96%) perceived the increase in temperature and 83% respondents from Kaski perceived decreasing rainfall trend whereas about 86% respondents from Chitwan perceived increasing rainfall trend. The major climate change adaptation strategies used by the respondents include; rice variety change (61%), better irrigation management (59%), changing cropping pattern (43%), terrace improvement (37%) and direct seeded rice (DSR) adoption (23%) in the study area. The SUR model revealed that age, education, household income were positively and statistically significant on different climate change adaptation strategies for rice cultivation. Time series regression model reveled that total seasonal rainfall for rice cultivation had positively and significantly determined to rice production area, production and yield, but total annual rainfall had negative determination on area, production and yield of rice. Empirical results analysis showed that improved crop varieties and irrigation as the most important adaptation measures. It also revealed that farmers lacked the capacity to implement the highly ranked adaptation practices. Results revealed that farmers facing negative impact of climate change due to low household income and lack of information on adaptation methods. This analysis of adaptation practices and constraints at farmer level will help facilitate government policy formulation and implementation

Assessment the Goat Value Chain in Mid Hills of Nepal

<p>Goat value chain development and analysis is a recently introduced activity for enabling goat production activities to link to the market network. In Nepal, goat production is repeatedly reported rather traditional than commercial. The production volume of goat is the main drawback of goat value chain development in Nepal. Despite the visible market opportunities in the meat sub-sectors, the country has been unable to take advantage of the situation for various reasons. Some of the reasons include production constraints compounded by farmers' socioeconomic and institutional issues and their relationship with the market as a driving force. The study was conducted in six districts (Rolpa, Rukum, Salyan, Pyuthan, Gulmi and Argakhachi) using participatory value chain analysis tools as well as households survey. Total 120 goat producer households survey was done in six districts whereas 30 goat collectors, 30 wholesalers'/regional traders and 30 butchers/retailers surveyed were done. Total sample size of this value chain study of goat sub-sector was 300. It was understood that goat production system in the study area was traditional and the main drawback of value chain is the smaller production volume of goat. When market situation analyzed, it was learnt that there was no systematic marketing system attained by the farmers due to smaller production volume, though the goats contributed almost half of the livestock heads per household (6-8 heads/HH). Mainly the local breeds of goat (Khari) were reared by the farmers with some sorts of crossbreeding with improved breeds such as Jamunapari in Salyan and Rukum. Moreover, the prolificacy of goat was found poor than the average of the Khari goat, where twinning was only 50% as responded by the farmers. Likewise, the grazing system was also of traditional and goats were managed under sedentary system (semi-intensive by almost 60% farmers) and frequent feeding of concentrates in small amount was customary. The natural and traditional grazing habitats such as community forests and pasturelands were used extensively. Almost 40% of the respondents were positive to raise goats in a flock size of 15-25 in a given set of circumstances of support from the agencies, obviously larger flocks might require heavy investments for a level of family income. Later the cost of production and the existing marketing system of goat subsector was analyzed and found that the farmer's profit is dominated by the profit of the t wholesalers and butchers, even though the profit share of farmers was  almost one third of the production cost (250 NPR/kg live weight). Total market margin for live weight per kg goat was found about NRP 193 from study area to national market hubs. The market margin/profit gained by the farmers was almost 41%, 20% for local collectors, 60% for regional goat traders/wholesalers and 17% to the regional/national butchers/retailers. There is a need to follow a more integrated approach by investigating challenges and opportunities from production to consumption along a value chain, while also addressing policy and institutional aspects affecting goat production.</p&gt

Factors influencing adoption of major orchard management practices in mandarin orange of Gorkha: A case from mid-hills of Nepal

The mid-hills of Nepal have immense potential for mandarin orange production. However, its productivity is declining over the years despite an increasing trend in the cultivated area. Since the proper adoption of orchard management practices has been associated with increased productivity, it is, therefore, an imminent requirement to sustain the mandarin orange production for long in the country. Therefore, a research survey was carried out to assess the adoption of major orchard management practices and identify factors affecting its adoption so that the insights from this finding would provide potential policy implications for the rejuvenation of the declining orchards.  Altogether, 93 households from Gandaki and Sahid Lakhan Rural municipalities, as well as Gorkha Municipality from Gorkha district were chosen for the study using a simple random sampling technique. Data were collected with a semi-structured interview which was analyzed using SPSS and Stata software. A seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) logit model was used for triangulating the effect of different variables on the adoption of major mandarin orange orchard management practices. The findings revealed that nearly two-third of the households reported citrus decline in their orchards. Further, the adoption of major orchard management practices was mostly found driven by regular access to extension agents, and the income generated from agriculture. Nevertheless, the adoption was plagued by the prevalence of citrus decline in the orchard. In light of these findings, participatory training programs related to the rejuvenation of declining orchards, regular advisory and extension services, and input subsidies to the smallholding farmers are suggested so that the adoption of major orchard management practices gets increased among the mandarin orange farmers

Value Chain Analysis of Large Cardamom in Taplejung District of Nepal

This study assessed the value chain analysis of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb) in Taplejung district, Nepal and explored the functional linkage and upgrading strategies among the key value chain actors. One hundred and sixty farmers were surveyed purposely along with 5 local and district level traders, 5 regional level traders and exporters and 5 enablers who were sampled using rapid market appraisal in March 2018. The study presents a comparative analysis among large holders (n=72) and smallholders (n=88) large cardamom farmers using SPSS and MS-Excel. The majority of farmers used suckers as propagating materials which was a major source of disease conduction. 62.5% of farmers adopted traditional dryers for curing, which reduced the quality of large cardamom whereas about 30% of them used improved dryers for curing that enhanced quality. The majority of farmers had not adopted value addition practices like tail cutting, grading and packaging which were carried out at trader level. Large cardamom prices were normally determined by the export market of India. The average land area of large cardamom per household was 21.56 ropani with 36.74 ropani for the large landholder farmers and 9.14 ropani for the smallholders. The key problems faced by farmers and traders were high price swing, lack of disease-free propagating materials, reliance on the Indian market, aged orchards, shrinking productivity, and minimal collaboration among the chain actors. Therefore, adoption of Good Management Practices (GMPs)- upgraded bhattis, transfer of tail cutting technology and storage management, along with value addition activities like grading (color and size), tail cutting and packaging need to be adopted with strong adherence to export quality. This study revealed that necessary action needs to be taken to maintain a high level of collaboration among the value chain actors thereby increasing the value chain efficiency of Nepalese large cardamom