Mass, heat and nutrient fluxes in the Atlantic Ocean determined by inverse methods

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution March 1988Inverse methods are applied to historical hydrographic data to address two aspects of the general circulation of the Atlantic Ocean. The method allows conservation statements for mass and other properties, along with a variety of other constraints, to be combined in a dynamically consistent way to estimate the absolute velocity field and associated property transports. The method is first used to examine the exchange of mass and heat between the South Atlantic and the neighboring ocean basins. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) carries a surplus of intermediate water into the South Atlantic through Drake Passage which is compensated by a surplus of deep and bottom water leaving the basin south of Africa. As a result, the ACC loses .25±.18x1015 W of heat in crossing the Atlantic. At 32°S the meridional flux of heat is .25±.19x1015 W equatorward, consistent in sign but smaller in magnitude than other recent estimates. This heat flux is carried primarily by a meridional overturning cell in which the export of 17 Sv of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) is balanced by an equatorward return flow equally split between the surface layers, and the intermediate and bottom water. No "leak" of warm Indian Ocean thermocline water is necessary to account for the equatorward heat flux across 32°S; in fact, a large transfer of warm water from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic is found to be inconsistent with the present data set. Together these results demonstrate that the Atlantic as a whole acts to convert intermediate water to deep and bottom water, and thus that the global thermohaline cell associated with the formation and export of NADW is closed primarily by a "cold water path," in which deep water leaving the Atlantic ultimately returns as intermediate water entering the basin through Drake Passage. The second problem addressed concerns the circulation and property fluxes across 24°and 36°N in the subtropical North Atlantic. Conservation statements are considered for the nutrients as well as mass, and the nutrients are found to contribute significant information independent of temperature and salinity. Silicate is particularly effective in reducing the indeterminacy of circulation estimates based on mass conservation alone. In turn, the results demonstrate that accurate estimates of the chemical fluxes depend on relatively detailed knowledge of the circulation. The zonal-integral of the circulation consists of an overturning cell at both latitudes, with a net export of 19 Sv of NADW. This cell results in a poleward heat flux of 1.3±.2x1015 Wand an equatorward oxygen flux of 2900±180 kmol S-l across each latitude. The net flux of silicate is also equatorward: 138±38 kmol s-1 and 152±56 kmol s -1 across 36°and 24° N, respectively. However, in contrast to heat and oxygen, the overturning cell is not the only important mechanism responsible for the net silicate transport. A horizontal recirculation consisting of northward flow of silica-rich deep water in the eastern basin balanced by southward flow of low silica water in the western basin results in a significant silicate flux to the north. The net equatorward flux is thus smaller than indicated by the overturning cell alone. The net flux of nitrate across 36°N is n9±35 kmol 8- 1 to the north and is indistinguishable from zero at 24°N (-8±39 kmol 8-1 ), leading to a net divergence of nitrate between these two latitudes. Forcing the system to conserve nitrate leads to an unreasonable circulation. The dominant contribution to the nitrate flux at 36°N results from the correlation of strong northward flow and relatively high nitrate concentrations in the sub-surface waters of the Gulf Stream. The observed nitrate divergence between 24°and 36°N, and convergence north of 36°N, can be accounted for by a shallow cell in which the northward flow of inorganic nitrogen (nitrate) in the Gulf Stream is balanced by a southward flux of dissolved organic nitrogen in the recirculation gyre. Oxidation of the dissolved organic matter during its transit of the subtropical gyre supplies the required source of regenerated nitrate to the Gulf Stream and consumes oxygen, consistent with recent observations of oxygen utilization in the Sargasso Sea.This research was supported by NASA under contract NAG5-534 and NSF under contract OCE-8521685

Circulation and water masses of the southwest Pacific: WOCE Section P11, Papua New Guinea to Tasmania

The circulation near the western boundary of the South Pacific is described on the basis of water properties and geostrophic velocities measured on a meridional section along 155E through the East Australian and Coral Basins. The section was occupied in winter 1993 as part of the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE, Section P11S). The primary objective of P11 was to quantify the zonal flows entering and leaving the western boundary of the basin. The primary inflow to the Tasman and Coral seas is supplied by the South Equatorial Current (SEC), which crosses the P11 section as a wide band of westward flow between 14 and 18S with a total geostrophic transport of 55 Sv (1 Sv = 106 m3/s) relative to the bottom. The SEC bifurcates at the Australian coast near 18S: 29 Sv turns south to feed the East Australian Current (EAC), and 26 Sv recirculates in the Gulf of Papua New Guinea as a low-latitude western boundary current (the Great Barrier Reef and New Guinea Coastal Undercurrents, GBRUC/NGCUC). The NGCUC closes the tropical gyre, and carries South Pacific water around the Louisiade Archipelago and through the Solomon Sea to the equator. The core of the EAC lies over the continental slope between 18S and 30S. A system of deep-reaching, recirculating eddies or gyres is located offshore of the EAC. At 30S the EAC separates from the coast, and the steeply sloping isopycnals associated with the current persist from the surface to the bottom. The total geostrophic transport of the EAC after separation is 57 Sv relative to the bottom. After separation from the coast, more than half of the EAC (33 Sv) recirculates north and then west, crossing P11 again at 28S. The remainder (24 Sv) continues east as a meandering jet across the Tasman Sea (the Tasman Front). The circulation in the southern part of the Tasman Sea is dominated by transient eddies and standing gyres. An anticyclonic circulation facilitates the exchange of water between the Tasman Sea and the Southern Ocean. About 10 Sv of subantarctic water spreads north to 36-38S, then recirculates back to the west to merge with a weak southward flow of modified subtopical water near the Tasmanian coast. The circulation in the deeper layers consists of a weak northward deep western boundary current, a cyclonic recirculation filling the Tasman Basin, and a net export of about 3 Sv of deep water to the Coral Sea. The transport of mode and intermediate water in the low-latitude western boundary current crossing P11 is similar to the transport in these density classes further upstream in the subtropical gyre at 32S. This suggests that the mode and intermediate waters entering the Pacific from the south to compensate the export through the Indonesian passages are carried north to the tropical western Pacific primarily along isopycnals

Towards coupled physical-biogeochemical models of the ocean carbon cycle

The purpose of this review is to discuss the critical gaps in our knowledge of ocean dynamics and biogeochemical cycles. It is assumed that the ultimate goal is the design of a model of the earth system that can predict the response to changes in the external forces driving climate

Ocean-atmospheric linkages

This chapter focuses on the role of the ocean in the global carbon cycle on the time scale of decades to centuries. The input rate of CO2 to the atmosphere due to fossil fuel burning and deforestation has continued to increase over the last century. To balance the global carbon budget, a sink is required whose magnitude is changing on similar time scales. We have sought to identify aspects of the ocean system that are capable of responding on decadal time scales, to examine our present ability to model such changes, and to pinpoint ways in which this ability could be improved. Many other important aspects of the ocean's role in global change are not addressed, including the importance of oceanic heat transport and thermal inertia to the climate system, biogeochemical cycling of elements other than carbon, and the importance of the ocean as a source or sink of trace gases

Subantarctic Mode Water variability influenced by mesoscale eddies south of Tasmania

[1] Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) is formed by deep mixing on the equatorward side of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The subduction and export of SAMW from the Southern Ocean play an important role in global heat, freshwater, carbon, and nutrient budgets. However, the formation process and variability of SAMW remain poorly understood, largely because of a lack of observations. To determine the temporal variability of SAMW in the Australian sector of the Southern Ocean, we used a 15 year time series of repeat expendable bathythermograph sections from 1993 to 2007, seven repeat conductivity-temperature-depth sections from 1991 to 2001, and sea surface height maps. The mean temperature of the SAMW lies between 8.5°C and 9.5°C (mean of 8.8°C, standard deviation of 0.3°C), and there is no evidence of a trend over the 18 year record. However, the temperature, salinity, and pycnostad strength of the SAMW can change abruptly from section to section. In addition, the SAMW pool on a single section often consists of two or more modes with distinct temperature, salinity, and vertical homogeneity characteristics but similar density. We show that the multiple types of mode water can be explained by the advection of anomalous water from eddies and meanders of the fronts bounding the Subantarctic Zone and by recirculation of SAMW of different ages. Our results suggest that infrequently repeated sections can potentially produce misleading results because of aliasing of high interannual variability

Frontal positions and mixed layer evolution in the Seasonal Ice Zone along 140°E in 2001/02

We describe the circulation and seasonal development of the upper ocean in the Seasonal Ice Zone (SIZ) of the Southern Ocean along 140°E. The 140°E section was repeated four times between November 2001 and March 2002, spanning the period from early spring to autumn. The sea ice edge was located at 62°-63°S in November, and retreated to 65°S in January. The circulation in the region is dominated by several fronts: the southern branch of Polar Front (PF-S) was located between 60° and 61.5°S; the northern branch of Southern ACC front (sACCf-N) was located at 61.5°-63°S, and roughly corresponds with the winter sea ice edge; and the southern branch of sACCf, the southern boundary of the ACC, and the Antarctic Slope Front (ASF) were closely spaced and found between 64°S and 65°S. Vigorous cyclonic (clockwise) eddies were identified in the region between the sACCf-N and sACCf-S throughout the period. Changes in salinity made the dominant contribution to changes in density in the SIZ, while changes in temperature made the largest contribution to density changes in the AZ, north of the sACCf. The depth of the mixed layer generally shoaled to the south, in all seasons. The decrease in mixed layer depth occurred in a series of steps. Seasonal variability in the depth of the mixed layer was strongest in the AZ, where summer warming formed a strong seasonal thermocline above the relatively deep (100 m) Winter Water layer. In the SIZ, the mixed layer became warmer, fresher and lighter in summer but the depth of the mixed layer remained at about 50 m throughout the year. The freshest surface waters were observed in the SIZ in January, immediately following the melt and retreat of the sea ice pack. An increase in mixed layer salinity from January to March likely reflects the effect of mixing with saltier waters below the mixed layer. Mixed layer depths south of the ASF were highly variable, both within and between seasons, varying from a minimum of ～20 m in January to over 500 m in March

The dynamics of Southern Ocean storm tracks

The mechanisms that initiate and maintain oceanic "storm tracks" (regions of anomalously high eddy kinetic energy) are studied in a wind-driven, isopycnal, primitive equation model with idealized bottom topography. Storm tracks are found downstream of the topography in regions strongly influenced by a largescale stationary meander that is generated by the interaction between the background mean flow and the topography. In oceanic storm tracks the length scale of the stationary meander differs from that of the transient eddies, a point of distinction from the atmospheric storm tracks. When the zonal length and height of the topography are varied, the storm-track intensity is largely unchanged and the downstream storm-track length varies only weakly. The dynamics of the storm track in this idealized configuration are investigated using a wave activity flux (related to the Eliassen-Palmflux and eddy energy budgets). It is found that vertical fluxes of wave activity (which correspond to eddy growth by baroclinic conversion) are localized to the region influenced by the standing meander. Farther downstream, organized horizontal wave activity fluxes (which indicate eddy energy fluxes) are found. A mechanism for the development of oceanic storm tracks is proposed: the standing meander initiates localized conversion of energy from the mean field to the eddy field, while the storm track develops downstream of the initial baroclinic growth through the ageostrophic flux ofMontgomery potential. Finally, the implications of this analysis for the parameterization and prediction of storm tracks in ocean models are discussed

Direct observations of the Antarctic Slope Current transport at 113°E

Author Posting. © American Geophysical Union, 2016. This article is posted here by permission of American Geophysical Union for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 121 (2016): 7390–7407, doi:10.1002/2015JC011594.The Antarctic Slope Current (ASC), defined here as the region of westward flow along the continental slope off Antarctica, forms the southern limb of the subpolar gyres. It regulates the exchange of water across the shelf break and provides a path for interbasin westward transport. Despite its significance, the ASC remains largely unobserved around most of the Antarctic continent. Here we present direct velocity observations from a 17 month current meter moored array deployed across the continental slope between the 1000 and the 4200 m isobaths, in the southeastern Indian Ocean near 113°E. The observed time-mean flow consists of a surface-intensified jet associated with the Antarctic Slope Front (ASF) and a broader bottom-intensified westward flow that extends out to approximately the 4000 m isobath and is strongest along the upper slope. The time-mean transport of the ASC is −29.2 Sv. Fluctuations in the transport are large, typically exceeding the mean by a factor of 2. They are mainly due to changes in the northward extent of the current over the lower slope. However, seasonal changes in the wind also drive variations in the transport of the ASF and the flow in the upper slope. Both mean and variability are largely barotropic, thus invisible to traditional geostrophic methodsM.S.M. and the current meter array were supported by the National Science Foundation grant 0727045 ‘‘Measuring Westward Recirculation in the Subpolar Gyre of the Southeastern Indian Ocean.’’ B.P.M. and S.R.R. were supported by the Cooperative Research Centre program of the Australian Government, through the Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre. S.R.R. was also supported by the Australian Government Department of the Environment, the Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO through the Australian Climate Change Science Program.2017-04-1

A Continental Shelf Pump for CO2 on the Adélie Land Coast, East Antarctica

We quantify the transport of inorganic carbon from the continental shelf to the deep ocean in Dense Shelf Water (DSW) from the Mertz and Ninnis Polynyas along the Adélie Land coast in East Antarctica. For this purpose, observations of total dissolved inorganic carbon (TCO2) from two summer hydrographic surveys in 2015 and 2017 were paired with DSW volume transport estimates derived from a coupled ocean‐sea ice‐ice shelf model to examine the fate of inorganic carbon in DSW from Adélie Land. Transports indicate a net outflow of 227 ± 115 Tg C yr−1 with DSW in the postglacial calving configuration of the Mertz Polynya. The greatest outflow of inorganic carbon from the shelf region was delivered through the northern boundary across the Adélie and Mertz Sills, with an additional transport westward from the Mertz Polynya. Inorganic carbon in DSW is derived primarily from inflowing TCO2‐rich modified Circumpolar Deep Water; local processes (biological productivity, air‐sea exchange of CO2, and the addition of brine during sea ice formation) make much smaller contributions. This study proposes that DSW export serves as a continental shelf pump for CO2 and is a pathway to sequester inorganic carbon from the shallow Antarctic continental shelf to the abyssal ocean, removing CO2 from atmospheric exchange on the time scale of centuries