The Effect of Human Activity on the Welfare of the African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Namibia

The African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is vital in several African ecosystems, accentuating the importance of conserving them. However, conservation efforts are constantly complicated due to human population growth. Anthropogenic disturbances has been linked with elevated stress levels in animals, which in turn is associated with decreased welfare and fitness. The present study seeks to replicate a previously conducted study of elephants in Tanzania, with the goal of evaluating the current Namibian elephant population and increasing the knowledge of what anthropogenic disturbances are affecting, if at all, the welfare of elephants. The study was done as a comparative study between areas with high (outside protected area) and low (inside protected area) human interference, using the non- invasive method of measuring the concentration of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites as a measure of stress. During 32 days in the field, a total of 90 dung samples were collected and analysed. The results supported the hypothesis with a significantly higher stress level recorded outside the protected national park, Etosha (ENP), compared to inside ENP. Further statistical analyses showed that the only variable explaining this variation significantly was area (inside vs. outside). The findings suggest that anthropogenic disturbances are a contributing factor, elevating stress levels in elephants residing in non-protected areas, potentially affecting their welfare. Human-elephant conflicts (HEC) seem to be an important underlying cause, hence emphasizing the importance of seeking to prevent and minimize HEC in future conservation work. The low physiological stress levels measured inside ENP further demonstrate the importance of protected areas for conservation purposes

Being stressed outside the park — conservation of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Namibia

The conservation of the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) is of prime importance for many African countries. Interactions between elephants and humans are known to induce stress and thereby have the potential to affect elephants’fitness. In Namibia, anthropogenic disturbances are increasing due to increasing human population size and development, particularly near protected areas, such as national parks. In this study, we investigated elephant stress levels in relation to their land use, specifically their protection status, comparing elephants within Etosha National Park in Namibia with elephants residing outside the park. We noninvasively collected dung samples of 91 elephants and determined the concentration of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM), an indicator of physiological stress. Elephants outside the park (N = 35) had significantly higher concentrations of fGCM than those inside ENP (N = 56), suggesting that, despite including community-based conservancies, unprotected areas are more stressful for elephants than protected areas, most likely due to increased interactions with humans. We also found that males had lower fGCM concentrations than females, but no significant effect of age, body size or group size was detected. Additionally, herd sizes were significantly smaller and calf recruitment was potentially lower in unprotected areas. These findings underpin the importance of protected areas such as ENP, while encouraging decision-makers to continue reducing and mitigating potential human-induced disturbances.publishedVersio