Rural poverty, migration, and the environment in developing countries : three case studies

The author presents three case studies (of the links between highlands and lowlands in Latin America; transmigration in Indonesia; and migration and desertification in the Sudan) to illustrate the relationship between poverty, internal migration, and environmental change in rural areas of developing countries. Policies to deal with the problems of environmental degradation in areas that are destinations for migrants would usually include: preparation of a detailed national inventory of land and water resources, and a land-use plan to protect biologically important or fragile areas and direct new agricultural settlements elsewhere; coordination of this plan with the construction of roads; better coordination across government agencies in the development and implementation of policies related to land use; reduction of population growth, a driving force behind decisions to migrate; improving land use in traditional areas of settlement, to reduce both overuse and underuse of land; development of a system of land tenure that provides land users with incentives to maintain productivity; environmental education programs (in schools and for farmers) to create a national environmental consciousness and more appreciation for the country's natural assets and beauty; new, appropriate systems of data collection and analysis, to help clarify underlying processes and develop more refined, appropriate; and broad-based macroeconomic policies. These policies will be aimed at improving incomes in rural areas, relative to urban areas - aimed at reduced poverty, environmental degradation, and rural outmigration.Banks&Banking Reform,Health Monitoring&Evaluation,Municipal Financial Management,Environmental Economics&Policies,Drylands&Desertification

Oil Extraction and Indigenous Livelihoods in the Northern Ecuadorian Amazon

Globally, the extraction of minerals and fossil fuels is increasingly penetrating into isolated regions inhabited by indigenous peoples, potentially undermining their livelihoods and well-being. To provide new insight to this issue, we draw on a unique longitudinal dataset collected in the Ecuadorian Amazon over an 11-year period from 484 indigenous households with varying degrees of exposure to oil extraction. Fixed and random effects regression models of the consequences of oil activities for livelihood outcomes reveal mixed and multidimensional effects. These results challenge common assumptions about these processes and are only partly consistent with hypotheses drawn from the Dutch disease literature

Consequences of out-migration for land use in rural Ecuador

In rural Ecuador and elsewhere in Latin America, the departure of migrants and the receipt of migrant remittances have led to declining rural populations and increasing cash incomes. It is commonly assumed that these processes will lead to agricultural abandonment and the regrowth of native vegetation, thus undermining traditional livelihoods and providing a boon for biodiversity conservation. However, an increasing number of household-level studies have found mixed and complex effects of out-migration and remittances on agriculture. We advance this literature by using household survey data and satellite imagery from three study areas in rural Ecuador to investigate the effects of migration and remittances on agricultural land use. Multivariate methods are used to disaggregate the effects of migration and remittances, to account for other influences on land use and to correct for the potential endogeneity of migration and remittances. Contrary to common assumptions but consistent with previous studies, we find that migrant departure has a positive effect on agricultural activities that is offset by migrant remittances. These results suggest that rural out-migration alone is not likely to lead to a forest transition in the study areas

Declining use of wild resources by indigenous peoples of the Ecuadorian Amazon

Wild product harvesting by forest-dwelling peoples, including hunting, fishing, forest product collection and timber harvesting, is believed to be a major threat to the biodiversity of tropical forests worldwide. Despite this threat, few studies have attempted to quantify these activities across time or across large spatial scales. We use a unique longitudinal household survey (n = 480) to describe changes in these activities over time in 32 indigenous communities from five ethnicities in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon. To provide insight into the drivers of these changes, we also estimate multilevel statistical models of these activities as a function of household and community characteristics. These analyses reveal that participation in hunting, fishing, and forest product collection is high but declining across time and across ethnicities, with no evidence for a parallel decline in resource quality. However, participation in timber harvesting did not significantly decline and there is evidence of a decline in resource quality. Multilevel statistical models additionally reveal that household and community characteristics such as ethnicity, demographic characteristics, wealth, livelihood diversification, access to forest, participation in conservation programs and exposure to external markets are significant predictors of wild product harvesting. These characteristics have changed over time but cannot account for declining participation in resource harvesting. This finding suggests that participation is declining due to changes in the regional-scale social and economic context, including urbanization and the expansion of government infrastructure and services. The lesson for conservationists is that macro-scale social and economic conditions can drive reductions in wild product harvesting even in the absence of successful conservation interventions

Morbidity and mortality disparities among colonist and indigenous populations in the Ecuadorian Amazon

Rural populations living in the northern Ecuadorian Amazon (NEA) experience the highest health burden of any region in the country. Two independent studies of colonist and indigenous groups living in the NEA are used to compare their morbidity and mortality experiences. Colonist data are from a probability sample of land plots in 1999, while indigenous data are from a representative sample of the five largest ethnicities (Quichua, Shuar, Huaorani, Cofan, Secoya) collected in 2001. Poisson regression was used to compare morbidity. Results indicate clear differences in health between populations. Indigenous groups had 30% higher probability of mortality and 63% higher incidence rate of all-cause morbidity compared to colonists. Vector-borne, chronic, gastrointestinal, and diseases of unknown origin were particularly high among indigenous groups. Factors associated with morbidity varied: morbidity rates were similar for the two youngest age groups (0–4 and 5–9), but indigenous people aged 15–39 and 40+ had almost double the morbidity compared to colonists; larger households, later months of data collection and less pollution were associated with less morbidity in both groups; better infrastructure access (electricity and roads) was generally associated with lower morbidity in both groups; and associations of land use were different by group with more cultivation of perennials and fewer annuals associated with less morbidity for colonists, but more for indigenous groups. These results demonstrate the health disparities that exist among indigenous and non-indigenous populations even when living in the same geographic region. Land use itself exemplifies the cultural and contextual differences that are evident in health, since land use decisions are related to broader demographic and economic factors that influence overall ecological and human health. Ongoing population-environment and/or environment-health research needs to recognize the broader factors involved when studying relationships between population health, development and deforestation

Migration Within the Frontier: The Second Generation Colonization in the Ecuadorian Amazon

Since the 1970s, migration to the Amazon has led to a growing human presence and resulting dramatic changes in the physical landscape of the Northern Ecuadorian Amazon frontier, including considerable deforestation. Over time, a second demographic phenomenon has emerged with the children of the original migrants leaving settler farms to set out on their own. The vast majority have remained in the Amazon region, some contributing to further changes in land use via rural-rural migration to establish new farms and others to incipient urbanization. This paper uses longitudinal, multi-scale data on settler colonists between 1990 and 1999 to analyze rural-rural and rural-urban migration among second-generation colonists within the region. Following a description of migrants and settlers in terms of their individual, household and community characteristics, a multinomial discrete-time hazard model is used to estimate the determinants of out-migration of the second generation settlers to both urban and rural areas. We find significant differences in the determinants of migration to the two types of destinations in personal characteristics, human capital endowments, stage of farm and household lifecycles, migration networks, and access to community resources and infrastructure. The paper concludes with a discussion of policy implications of migrants' choice of rural versus urban destinations

Declining fertility on the frontier: the Ecuadorian Amazon

This paper examines farm and household characteristics associated with a rapid fertility decline in a forest frontier of the Ecuadorian Amazon. The Amazon basin and other rainforests in the tropics are among the last frontiers in the ongoing global fertility transition. The pace of this transition along agricultural frontiers will likely have major implications for future forest transitions, rural development, and ultimately urbanization in frontier areas. The study here is based upon data from a probability sample of 172 women who lived on the same farm in 1990 and 1999. These data are from perhaps the first region-wide longitudinal survey of fertility in an agricultural frontier. Descriptive analyses indicate that fertility has plummeted in the region, which is surprising since it had remained high and unchanging among migrant colonists up to 1990. Thus only half of the women in our sample reported having a birth during the 1990-1999 time period, and most women report in 1999 that they do not want to have any more children. Analyses, controlling for women's age, corroborate hypotheses about land-fertility relations. For example, women from households with a legal land title had fewer than half as many children as those from households without a title. Large cattle (pasture) holdings and hiring laborers to work on the farm (which may replace household labor) are both related to socio-economic status that is traditionally associated with lower fertility. Similarly, distance to the nearest community center is positively related to fertility. Factors negatively related to fertility include increasing temporary out-migration of adult men or women from the household, asset accumulation, and access to electricity

Un análisis multinivel de población y deforestación en el Parque Nacional Sierra de Lacandón (Petén, Guatemala)

Este estudio examina los factores demográficos asociados con la deforestación en el Parque Nacional Sierra de Lacandón (PNSL), Guatemala, utilizando un análisis de regresión multinivel. Más del 10% del PNSL ha sido deforestado desde mediados de la década de 1980, a causa del crecimiento demográfico de la población campesina y su subsiguiente manejo de la tierra. Utilizando un análisis de regresión múltiple de dos niveles, este estudio examina datos demográficos y otras características de los hogares para explicar variaciones en el bosque roturado entre 241 fincas agrícolas en ocho comunidades en el PNSL. Esta metodología, novedosa en el estudio de uso del suelo en los trópicos, toma en cuenta la variación espacial entre comunidades, así como entre hogares. Al usar modelos de multinivel, se puede llegar a resultados mejores sobre los impactos de los factores, tanto a nivel de comunidad como a nivel de hogar sobre la deforestación, con implicaciones más adecuadas para políticas de desarrollo.Aquest estudi examina els factors demogràfics associats amb la desforestació al Parc Nacional Sierra de Lacandon (PNSL), Guatemala, mitjançant una anàlisi de regressió multinivell. Més del 10 % del PNSL ha estat desforestat des de la meitat de la dècada de 1980, com a conseqüència del creixement demogràfic i les pràctiques de gestió agrícola. Utilitzant una anàlisi de regressió múltiple de dos nivells, aquest estudi examina dades demogràfiques i unes altres característiques de les llars per explicar variacions en el bosc artigat entre 241 finques agrícoles en vuit comunitats al PNSL. Aquesta metodologia té en compte la variació especial entre comunitats i entre llars, i abans no havia estat mai aplicada als tròpics. El model de regressió multinivell pot ajudar a explicar millor els impactes de factors propis de les comunitats i de les llars en la desforestació, per tant, pot contribuir a millorar les polítiques de desenvolupament.Cette étude a examiné les facteurs démographiques associés au phénomène de déforestation du Parc National Sierra de Lacandón (PNSL, Guatemala) en utilisant une analyse de régression multi-niveau. Depuis le milieu des années 1980, plus de 10 % du PNSL a été déboisé par la croissance démographique de la population rurale, son besoin en surface et l'utilisation variée de la terre. En utilisant une analyse de régression multiple de deux niveaux, cette étude examine des données démographiques et plusieurs caractéristiques liées aux exploitations, dans le but d'expliquer les variations dans le parc défriché entre 241 propriétés agricoles dans huit communautés du PNSL. Cette méthodologie, nouvelle dans l'étude de l'usage du sol dans les tropiques, prend en compte la variation spatiale entre des communautés ainsi que des exploitations. En utilisant ces modèles de multi-niveaux, on peut arriver à de meilleurs résultats concernant les impacts des facteurs au niveau des communautés et des exploitations concernant la déforestation, avec des résultats plus adapatées pour les politiques de développement.The paper examines depopulation factors associated with deforestation in the Natural park of the Sierra de Lacandón (PNSL), using multi-level regresión analysis. More than 10 percent of the park area has been deforested since the mid 1980s because of rural population growth and agricultural practices. By means of a two-level regression analysis the study use dem ographic and other household data to explain variations in deforested land in 241 agricultural estates in 8 communities of the PNSL. The methodology, not applied before in the tropics, takes into account spatial variations between communities and households. Multilvel regression allows for better results on the impacts of socioeconomic factors on deforestation, both at the community and at the household levels with important implications for development policies

Influence of Rural Out-Migration on Household Participation in Community Forest Management? Evidence from the Middle Hills of Nepal

Rural out-migration was a rare socio-economic phenomenon when community forestry began in the 1980s in Nepal. Now, out-migration significantly influences nearly every aspect of rural livelihoods in the country. However, it is unclear how out-migration affects community forestry governance, which is essential for sustainable rural development. Therefore, this paper addresses the following research question: Does rural out-migration affect forest users’ participation in community forestry decision-making and management practices? This paper draws on data collected from an extensive survey of 415 households from 15 community forest user groups in 2 Mid-Hill districts of Nepal. The research used ordered-logit regression to model the impacts of out-migration on participation in forest management and decision-making, while controlling for a number of other socio-economic factors. The model results show that total household size and number of internal migrants, together with multiple resource characteristics and institutional attributes, were major factors affecting participation in decision-making and forest management. However, the number of international migrants did not have a significant role in determining the levels of the participation. This study provides valuable insights for future community forestry policymaking that aims to address the effects of out-migration on community forest management in Nepal

The Elamite Cylinder Seal Corpus, c.3500 - 1000 BC

The ancient region of Elam (southwestern Iran) has produced a significant assemblage of cylinder seals across a considerable chronological span. Unlike the glyptic material from the related and neighbouring region Mesopotamia, the Elamite cylinder seals have not previously been studied in detailed reference to one another, nor has there been an established paradigm of stylistic development articulated. This study addresses this lacuna by compiling all the published cylinder seals from Elam (as defined here, thus incorporating the historical provinces of Khuzistan, Luristan and Fars), from their earliest appearance (c.3500 BC), throughout the era of their typological dominance (over stamp seals, thus this study departs c.1000 BC). This compilation is presented in the Elamite Cylinder Seal Catalogue (Volume II), and is annotated and described through the annunciation of eighteen chronologically defined developmental styles (with another two non-chronological type classifications and four miscellaneous groups). Through the further analysis of this data, including the newly formulated and articulated styles, several facets and problems of Elamite glyptic material have been addressed (and thus the reliance upon assumed similarity in type and function with the Mesopotamian glyptic material is abandoned). These problems particularly pertain to the function of cylinder seals in Elam and the type and form of the Elamite-Mesopotamian glyptic interaction. In regards to function, a standard administrative function can be discerned, though of varying types and forms across the region and the period of study. Other, non-standard, symbolic glyptic functions can also be demonstrated in the Corpus, including the apparent proliferation of a form known as the ‘votive’ seal, perhaps a specifically Elamite form. The analysis of the style type (whether ‘Elamite’, ‘Mesopotamian Related’ or ‘Shared Elamite-Mesopotamian’), in association with their relative geographical and chronological distribution, has also enabled the discussion of the nature of Elamite-Mesopotamian glyptic interaction, and thereby the constitution of Elamite civilisation (especially in regards to Mesopotamian cultural impact and influence, and thus the testing of several previously presented paradigms [Amiet 1979a; 1979b; Miroschedji 2003])