Revealing the factors that promote divergence in the Bladder Grasshopper Bullacris unicolor (Orthoptera; Pneumoroidea)

Philosophiae Doctor - PhDVariation in sympatric and allopatric populations is believed to be a precursor to eventual speciation. The dispersion of genes from one gene pool into another is prevented by various processes, including the founder effect, sexual selection, ecological differences and random genetic divergence. Examining patterns of intraspecific variation in phenotypic and genotypic traits may thus provide valuable insights into the processes that govern species origination. Bladder grasshoppers (Orthoptera; Pneumoroidea) are an ideal model system to investigate patterns of geographic and ecological divergence due to their high host plant specificity, low dispersal and distinctive acoustic signals. This dissertation investigates intraspecific diversification in the bladder grasshopper Bullacris unicolor (Orthoptera: Pneumoroidea). Recent research on this species has shown significant intra- and inter-population variation in male advertisement calls and morphological characters. However, the exact cause of this variation has remained unclear. Furthermore, a previous study showed that the calls of B. unicolor from one particular population are highly differentiated from other populations, possibly due to the effects of anthropogenic noise. Here we aim to examine the drivers of diversity within Bullacris unicolor by embracing a multidisciplinary approach that encompasses the effects of environmental factors, genetics, anthropogenic noise and host plant associated divergence

Intra- and inter-population variation in the bladder grasshopper Bullacris unicolor

Masters of ScienceAlthough the processes that promote biodiversity and speciation remain poorly understood, ecological factors are thought to be one of the causal agents responsible for promoting variation. Bladder grasshoppers (Orthoptera; Pneumoroidea) are a group of endemic southern African insects that provide an ideal model system to study the role of ecology in speciation. All species rely on acoustic communication for mate location, with males producing an extremely loud advertisement call that is highly species specific. Any alteration to the male call would thus likely have implications for species integrity. In this study, I examined geographic variation as well as potential ecological drivers of biological diversity within Bullacris unicolor, a variable and wide-ranging species of bladder grasshopper. The main aims of the study were to characterise the extent of acoustic and morphological variation among individuals sampled from five geographic locations and to correlate this variation with environmental data and host plant use. At the inter-population level, I found significant differences between populations with respect to both morphological and acoustic characters. Results of multivariate analyses showed significant differences in the body length, pronotum length and head width of males and in the pronotum length, abdomen width and head width of females. Similarly, the acoustic signals of males from the five populations differed significantly in both temporal and frequency components, with all but one variable (peak frequency of the introductory syllables) showing a significant difference. However, there was no correlation between morphological and acoustic variables among populations, and acoustic characters showed far greater divergence among populations than did morphology. In both males and females, the morphological variables that differed among populations were negatively correlated with mean annual temperature, indicating that grasshoppers are larger in areas with lower temperatures. Also, some of the call characteristics of males were correlated with temperature, precipitation, altitude, and slope. Although grasshoppers were observed feeding on a range of host plant species, neither morphology nor signal characteristics were found to vary according to host plant. At the intra-population level, multivariate analyses revealed that all acoustic characters differed significantly among individuals. Morphology may be influencing signal properties within a population to some extent as there were significant correlations between some of the call characters and both abdomen width and tibia length, with lengths of these two morphological variables being positively correlated with temporal components of the call and abdomen width being negatively correlated with frequency components. I also found a significant difference in the carrier frequency of male calls, as well as in some of the morphological characters of males and females, according to host plant. This indicates that host plant use has a greater effect on variation at the intra-population level than at the interpopulation level. In conclusion, the results of my study reveal significant variation in the morphology and acoustic signals of B. unicolor, both within and among populations, and suggest that this variation is at least partially related to ecological factors

The effect of anthropogenic noise and weather conditions on male calls in the bladder grasshopper Bullacris unicolor

Acoustic communication in animals relies upon specificcontextsandenvironments for effective signal transmission. Increasing anthropo-genic noise pollution and different weather conditions can disruptacoustic communication. In this study, we investigated call parameterdifferences in the bladder grasshopperBullacris unicolorinhabitingtwo sites in close proximity to each other that differed in their noiselevels. Calling activity was monitored via passive acoustic recorders.Weather conditions, including wind speed, temperature and humid-ity, were also recorded. We found that the interval between succes-sive calls increased with higher noise levels at both sites, and the peakfrequency became lower. The total number of calls detected alsodecreased with anthropogenic noise, but this relationship was onlyevident at the noisier site. In addition, grasshoppers shifted the timingof their calls to later in the night at the noisier site, possibly to takeadvantage of relatively lower noise levels

Phylogeographic investigation of the bladder grasshopper Bullacris unicolor (Orthoptera Pneumoroidea) in South Africa

There are several factors, such as genetic drift, gene flow and migration that affect the population genetic structure and phylogeographic distribution of genetic lineages within single species. Previous studies of the bladder grasshoppers, Bullacris unicolor of South Africa, showed divergence in mitochondrial CO1 (cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1) haplotype diversity and significant genetic structure. In this study, we revisit these findings adding more samples from different locations and using mitochondrial CO1 and Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene sequences. We tested the hypothesis that the western, northern and eastern distribution ranges of B. unicolor show different population genetic patterns, corresponding with isolation-by-distance. Mitochondrial CO1 and ITS data were collected for 99 individuals from 12 localities across the Western, Northern and Eastern sides of South Africa. Overall, significant variation in genetic structure was found across the localities as indicated by FST analyses

Female preference for blue in Japan blue guppies (Poecilia reticulata)

Guppies (Poecilia reticulata) are widely used as a model species in mate choice studies. Although native to South America, guppies have been introduced to natural water bodies in disparate regions of the globe. Here, for the first time, we examine guppies from one such introduced population in Japan where males have evolved a predominantly blue color pattern. Previous studies of wild-type guppies have shown blue to play a relatively minor role in the mate choice decisions of females compared to other traits, such as orange, and the importance of blue is not universally supported by all studies. The Japanese population therefore presents an ideal opportunity to re-examine the potential significance of blue as a mate choice cue in guppies. Mate choice experiments, in which female Japan blue guppies were given a choice between pairs of males that differed in their area of blue coloration but were matched for other traits, revealed that females prefer males with proportionately larger amounts of blue in their color patterns. We discuss possible factors, including sexual and ecological selection, which may have led to the evolution of unusually large areas of blue at the expense of other colors in Japan blue guppies. However, further studies are needed to distinguish between these scenarios.Web of Scienc

Infrared thermal image based steam turbine condenser air ingress test

This paper looked at the findings and analysis of a practical investigation into measuring air ingress to a steam power plant condenser using an infrared (IR) thermal imaging camera. The transient circumstances heat transfer of the condenser's surfaces were researched in order to use a single heating element with changing heat flow contributions. The investigation was conducted out on a condenser with a changing load, with thermal images taken with an infrared sensor and saved on a computer. The thermal resistance of the condenser was found to be about 40% lower than that of the damaged condenser

Infrared Thermal Image Based Steam Turbine Condenser Air Ingress Test

This paper looked at the findings and analysis of a practical investigation into measuring air ingress to a steam power plant condenser using an infrared (IR) thermal imaging camera. The transient circumstances heat transfer of the condenser's surfaces were researched in order to use a single heating element with changing heat flow contributions. The investigation was conducted out on a condenser with a changing load, with thermal images taken with an infrared sensor and saved on a computer. The thermal resistance of the condenser was found to be about 40% lower than that of the damaged condenser

No evidence for host plant associated genetic divergence in a population of Bullacris unicolor (Linnaeus, 1758) (Orthoptera: Pneumoridae)

Host-associated genetic differentiation in grasshoppers has received limited attention, due to a lack of information on grasshopper-plant associations. The bladder grasshopper, Bullacris unicolor (Linnaeus, 1758) (Orthoptera: Pneumoridae), is a phytophagous species that can occur on at least six host plants within its geographic range. However, the relationship between host plant association and genetic variation of bladder grasshoppers has not been studied before. In light of this, the present study examined host plant-related genetic [mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 (CO1) and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene regions] and morphological (antennal length, body length, head width, abdomen width, femur length, tibia length and pronotum length) divergence within a population of B. unicolor. We used two plant species, belonging to different families, namely Didelta spinosa (L.fil.) Aiton (Asteraceae) and Roepera morgsana (L.) Beier & Thulin (Zygophyllaceae), to evaluate variation between individuals collected on these two sympatric host plants at a single locality in the Northern Cape, South Africa. The results demonstrated non-significant host related genetic variation with very low values of FST, indicating a low level of variation. The phylogram strongly indicated that there are no host-associated genetic differences in B. unicolor by displaying limited genomic clustering, whereas some differentiation was observed between the morphological measurements of males and females among host plants. Further studies using microsatellite molecular markers may help to discern population genetic structure. In addition, significant host-associated morphological divergence highlights the need to examine the mechanisms by which host utilization affects morphological features

Temporal partitioning of <i>Bullacris unicolor</i> (Orthoptera: Pneumoridae) calling activity to avoid predation

Ecological interactions, including competition, predation, and environmental conditions, may significantly impact acoustic signalling behaviour. Here we characterise nocturnal signalling patterns in the bladder grasshopper Bullacris unicolor and relate this to biotic and abiotic factors, thus providing insights into ecological drivers of acoustic signalling behaviour. Passive acoustic recorders monitored nocturnal calling activity of the focal species, competitors, and predatory bats across the distribution of B. unicolor. Results indicate that B. unicolor calls preferentially at certain times of the night, but that peak activity period varies across the geographic range. There was a strong relationship between B. unicolor activity and bat activity. Bullacris unicolor populations further north showed an overall avoidance of bat echolocation call period, whereas further south an overlapping of call periods between B. unicolor and bat echolocation was observed. Bats at northern sites showed a distinct activity period early in the night and B. unicolor may thus reduce predation risk by shifting signalling activity to later in the night. In contrast, bats were active throughout the night at southern sites and B. unicolor did not delay calling activity in this region of its distribution, although the species did shift signalling slightly to reduce peak overlap with co-existing pneumorid species.</p