El desarrollo eólico en Brasil, Ecuador y España: reflexiones a partir del marco normativo

El desarrollo de las energías renovables en los últimos años estuvo favorecido en gran parte por el auge de la energía eólica. La generación de electricidad por esta vía no supone la emisión gases de efecto invernadero, aunque el proceso de instalación y construcción de los parques eólicos no es inocuo para el medio ambiente. Existe una amplia normativa a nivel internacional, pero la situación por países es muy dispar, derivando en un impacto ambiental, económico y social muy diferente. En este artículo, en base a una metodología descriptiva, se realiza un análisis apoyándose en las principales normativas existentes y de los impactos derivados del proceso de desarrollo de la energía eólica, en Brasil, líder en eólica en América Latina, Ecuador que ha iniciado una apuesta por este tipo de energía, comparando con el modelo español, incompleto pero consolidado.The development of renewable energy in recent years-was largely favored by the growth of wind energy. Electricity generation in this way does not involve the issu-ance gases greenhouse, although the process of installation and construction of wind farms is not safe for the environment. There is a large international law, but the situation is very uneven country, resulting in an environmental, economic and social very different. In this article, based on a descriptive methodology, an analysis of existing regulations and the impacts of the development process of wind energy in Brazil, leading wind in Latin America, Ecuador has begun a bet is made by this type of energy, compared to the Spanish model, but incomplete consolidated.peerReviewe

The Contribution of Renewable Energy to Wellness. Not Yet a Lesson Learned

Texto dispoñible en galego e españolNos últimos vinte anos as enerxías renovables acadaron un maior protagonismo dentro do panorama enerxético mundial debido á crecente demanda de enerxía dispoñible –en particular eléctrica–, á procura dunha maior diversificación enerxética, á asunción de políticas para reducir a emisión de gases de efecto invernadoiro e a que a súa utilización permite conxugar estes obxectivos coa obtención de altos rendementos produtivos. Dentro do conxunto das enerxías renovables destacou o papel da enerxía eólica como fonte de subministración de electricidade. Malia a defensa dos beneficios das enerxías renovables, proveniente de distintos ámbitos, para garantir o benestar da cidadanía en momentos de profundos cambios económicos e de inestabilidade enerxética como o actual, a súa aceptación global semella demasiado lenta. Neste artigo preséntase unha discusión teórica desde os enfoques da economía institucionalista, da bioeconomía e da economía da enerxía sobre os elementos clave da fortaleza das enerxías renovables para a consecución do benestar, mostrando algunhas das principais barreiras para a súa aceptación definitivaEn los últimos veinte años las energías renovables alcanzaron un mayor protagonismo dentro del panorama energético mundial debido a la creciente demanda de energía disponible –en particular eléctrica–, a la búsqueda de una mayor diversificación energética, a la asunción de políticas para reducir la emisión de gases de efecto invernadero y a que su utilización permite conjugar estos objetivos con la obtención de altos rendimientos productivos. Dentro del conjunto de las energías renovables destacó el papel de la energía eólica como fuente de suministro de electricidad. A pesar de la defensa de los beneficios de las energías renovables, proveniente de distintos ámbitos, para garantizar el bienestar de la ciudadanía en momentos de profundos cambios económicos y de inestabilidad energética como el actual, su aceptación global parece demasiado lenta. En este artículo se presenta una discusión teórica desde los enfoques de la economía institucionalista, la bioeconomía y la economía de la energía sobre los elementos clave de la fortaleza de las energías renovables para la consecución del bienestar, mostrando algunas de las principales barreras para su aceptación definitivaIn the last twenty years, renewable energy a greater role in the global energy outlook, due to the increasing demand for available energy, particularly electric, the search for greater energy diversification, the assumption of policies to reduce emissions greenhouse gases because they're combining their use allows objectives to obtain high production yields. Within the renewable energy mix emphasized the role of wind energy as a source of electricity. Despite the defense of the benefits of renewable energy from various fields to ensure the welfare of the citizenry in times of profound economic and energy as the current instabilities, global acceptance seems too slow.In this paper, we present a theoretical discussion with the approach of institutional economics, the bio-economy and energy economy, on the key elements of the strength of the renewable energies to achieve welfare, showing some of the main barriers to their final acceptanceS

Extractivism, ecologically unequal exchange and environmental impact in South America: a study using Material Flow Analysis (1990–2017)

With the economic and trade liberalisation policies of the late 20th century, the extraction of natural resources for export, known as extractivism, became the central axis of South American economies. This development model has a significant environmental impact and has generated imbalances in the South American productive structure that lead to chronically unfavourable terms of trade for the region. The different price dynamics of exports and imports trap South America in a vicious circle that leads to a progressive need to increase the volume of resources it extracts. Consequently, South America maintains a situation of ecologically unequal exchange that implies the absorption of an ever-increasing environmental impact from the rest of the world. All this calls into question the benefits of free trade, especially in ecological terms, as well as the compatibility between economic growth and the reduction of environmental impacS

An Approximation to the Environmental Impact of Economic Growth Using the Material Flow Analysis: Differences between Production and Consumption Methods, Applied to China, United Kingdom and USA (1990–2017)

The relationship between economic growth and environmental impact has become a recurrent subject of research in recent years. Currently, results that indicate that the accumulation of economic growth leads to a reduction in environmental impact coexist with others that do not show any evidence in this respect. This paper aims to analyse this relationship using Material Flow Analysis through the two most frequent methods: territorial or production and consumption. For this purpose, data from China, the United Kingdom and the USA from 1990–2017 are used. The results show that the method used influences the conclusions, mainly due to differences in the accounting of physical trade flows. The production method, in which physical trade flows coincide with monetary trade flows, tends to underestimate the material consumption of rich, importing countries, while overestimating that of exporting countries. Policies based on this method have limited capacity to reduce global environmental impacts. The consumption method allows the environmental impact to be allocated to each country in a way that is more in line with its true material requirementsS

Interaction between renewable energy consumption and dematerialization: insights based on the material footprint and the Environmental Kuznets Curve

This paper investigates the effect of renewable energy consumption on material consumption, considering the relationship between Material Footrprint and Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and testing the assumptions of the Environmental Kuznets Curve. A STIRPAT variation is used to specify a model relating the Material Footprint to renewable energy consumption and GDP. The effect is tested for the Material Footprint of fossil fuels and for the Material Footprint of the other categories. The analysis is applied to the seven European countries with the highest proportion of renewable energy consumption. The model estimation shows that the relationship between GDP and Material Footprint follows an inverted N-shaped form, and that the renewable energy favours the reduction of the material consumption of fossil fuels. However, there is a positive effect between the renewable energy consumption and the Material Footprint of the other categories beyond fossil fuels. These results must be interpreted considering the context, as the development of renewable energy coincides with the effects of the 2008 crisis, which may distort the relation between the variables. To pose dematerialization scenarios, it seems necessary to consider reducing energy consumption even if it comes from renewable sourcesS

Environmental Implications of the Implementation Process of the Wind Farms: The Situation in Galicia

Texto dispoñible en galego e españolO desenvolvemento conseguido polas enerxías renovables nos últimos anos estivo motivado en parte polo auxe conseguido pola enerxía eólica como fonte subministradora de electricidade nun contexto de esgotamento dos recursos fósiles e de busca de recursos alternativos que garantisen o abastecemento, pero cun menor impacto ambiental. Neste contexto, a enerxía eólica destaca pola non emisión de substancias tóxicas ao medio pero, con todo, o proceso de instalación e construción dos parques eólicos por parte das empresas promotoras non é inocuo. Malia a existencia dunha ampla normativa tanto a nivel internacional como de España e de Galicia, non se cumpren as condicións mínimas esixidas para garantir o respecto sobre o medio. Galicia ocupou un lugar de referencia no desenvolvemento da enerxía eólica nos últimos quince anos, aínda que, dada a inexistencia dun modelo integral de desenvolvemento do sector, non destaca por un proceso de implantación pouco lesivo; pola contra, unha parte importante dos parques eólicos están situados en espazos protexidos da Rede Natura 2000El desarrollo conseguido por las energías renovables en los últimos años estuvo motivado en parte por el auge conseguido por la energía eólica como fuente suministradora de electricidad en un contexto de agotamiento de los recursos fósiles y de búsqueda de recursos alternativos que garantizasen el abastecimiento, pero con un menor impacto ambiental. En este contexto, la energía eólica destaca por la no emisión de sustancias tóxicas al medio pero, con todo, el proceso de instalación y construcción de los parques eólicos por parte de las empresas promotoras no es inocuo. A pesar de la existencia de una amplia normativa tanto a nivel internacional como de España y Galicia, no se cumplen las condiciones mínimas exigidas para garantizar el respeto sobre el medio. Galicia ocupó un lugar de referencia en el desarrollo de la energía eólica en los últimos quince anos, aunque, dada la inexistencia de un modelo integral de desarrollo del sector, no destaca por un proceso de implantación poco lesivo; por el contrario, una parte importante de los parques eólicos están situados en espacios protegidos de la Red Natura 2000The development obtained by the renewable energies in last years was motivated partly by the summit obtained by the wind power, as source provided of electricity, in a context of depletion of the fossil resources, and of search of alternative resources that were guaran-teeing the supply but with minor environmental impact. In this context, the wind power emphasi-zes for not emission of toxic substances to the way, but with everything, the process of installa-tion and construction of the wind farms on the part of the companies promoters, is not inno-cuous. In spite of the existence of a wide regulation, so much worldwide, like of Spain and Gali-cia, the minimal conditions are not fulfilled demanded to guarantee the respect on the environ-ment. Galicia occupied a place of reference in the development of the wind power in the las fif-teen years, though given the nonexistence of an integral model of development of the sector, it does not stand out for a slightly harmful process of impantation. On the contrary, an important part of the wind farms the are placed in protected areas of the Network Nature 2000S

Spanish wind legal framework: to the environmental advance from the Galician case?

Durante las últimas dos décadas, las energías renovables han tenido un papel importante en el sistema mundial de energía, sobre todo en el desarrollo de la energía eólica. Estados Unidos, China y la Unión Europea se encuentran a la cabeza en cuanto al desarrollo de energía eólica instalada, encontrándose España en un nivel destacado y, especialmente, la región de Galicia. Sin embargo, esta expansión no estuvo exenta de polémica debido a la falta de transparencia en el proceso administrativo para la implantación de un parque eólico. En España el sector eólico se desarrolló sin un marco normativo integral que permitiera la participación de todos los agentes, como había sucedido en países como Dinamarca, Holanda y Alemania. La ausencia de un marco normativo completo retrasó la evolución del sector eólico en Galicia y dio lugar a varias denuncias ante los tribunales de justicia. En este trabajo analizamos las normas que regulaban el sector eólico en Galicia en el período 1995-2010, para determinar los posibles desarrollos en la regulación, en particular en las cuestiones ambientales.During the last two decades, the renewable energies have got a main role in the world energy system, overall the development of wind energy. In this way, United States, China and the European Union have reached the leaders positions of instaled wind capacity, being Spain on a prominent level and specially, the region of Galicia. However, this expansion was not without controversy because social acceptance depends on the transparency of the administrative process for the implementation of a wind farm, the reversion of citizenship or benefits on the valuation of forest land where they are located. In Spain the wind sector evolved under markedly productivist public policy, stationing himself by not defining a comprehensive regulatory framework that would allow participation and defense of all participating agents, as had happened in countries such as Denmark, Holland and Germany. The absence of comprehensive regulatory framework that has been a defining feature of the wind farm in Galicia advance, which slowed the evolution of the sector and resulted in several complaints to the courts of justice. We analyze the rules that regulated the wind sector in Galicia in the period 1995-2010, to determine the possible developments in the regulation, particularly on environmental issues.peerReviewe

The Network of Dominant Owners of Wind Development in Galicia (Spain) (1995–2017): An Approach Using Power Structure Analysis

This article identifies and characterizes the network of dominant businesses which owned wind farms in Galicia (Spain) from 1995 to 2017. This research contributes to reduce the research gap about identifying the investment groups involved and to appreciate the real size of the wind sector. The novelty of the research lies in identifying the network of real owners of wind farms through the application of Domhoff’s power structure analysis, normally used in the analysis of the power structure of corporations and political institutions. With this method, it is possible to observe how the individual wind farm companies are assessed as well as the matrix company, and/or the principal shareholders to which the farm belongs are identified. The article shows that the installed wind power in Galicia is owned by large energy firms with the participation of international investment funds as well, even though the smaller number of local companies in the sector were given favored status under the existing regulations. This study concludes that although there is no single worldwide model for wind promotion, a network of dominant owners has been formed, and that this network consists of energy companies, investment funds, financial institutions, and construction firms. It can be surmised that if the capital were of mostly Galician origin, this would facilitate a bigger reinvestment of the profits in the regionS

A Territorial Estimate for Household Energy Vulnerability: An Application for Spain

This paper proposes a composite indicator intended to assess territorial differences in household energy vulnerability. Although the estimation of household energy vulnerability has received less attention in scientific literature than energy poverty, it is a key element for political action as it allows for the diagnosis and subsequent action to tackle potential situations of household poverty before they actually occur. In this sense, the principal contribution of this article is a proposal for a tool designed to quantify the abstract and multidimensional phenomenon of household energy vulnerability. The technique used for constructing this synthetic indicator allows for the participation of stakeholders, especially policy makers, in defining and calculating the index. The synthetic index for energy vulnerability has been estimated for Spanish provinces. The results allow for the creation of a map providing an approximate insight into the spatial distribution of household energy vulnerability in SpainS