Cadmium pigments in consumer products and their health risks

© 2018 Elsevier B.V. Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal that has been increasingly regulated over the past few decades. The main exposure routes for the general public are the consumption of certain foods and the inhalation of cigarette smoke. However, additional exposure may occur through the current and historical use of the metal in consumer products. In this paper, the uses of Cd in consumer goods are reviewed, with the focus on brightly-coloured Cd sulphide and sulphoselenide pigments, and measurements of Cd in historical and contemporary products ascertained by XRF are reported. Cadmium is encountered across a wide range of contemporary plastic products, mainly because of the unregulated recycling of electronic waste and polyvinyl chloride. However, concentrations are generally low (<100 μg g−1), conforming with current limits and posing minimal risk to consumers. Of greater concern is high concentrations of pigmented Cd (up to 2% by weight) in old products, and in particular children's toys that remain in circulation. Here, tests conducted suggest that Cd migration in some products exceeds the Toy Safety Directive limit of 17 μg g−1 by an order of magnitude. The principal current use of Cd pigments is in ceramic products where the metal is encapsulated and overglazed. Leaching tests on new and secondhand items of hollowware indicate compliance with respect to the current Cd limit of 300 μg L−1, but that non-compliance could occur for items of earthenware or damaged articles should a proposed limit of 5 μg L−1 be introduced. The greatest consumer risk identified is the use of Cd pigments in the enamels of decorated drinking glasses. Thus, while décor is restricted to the exterior, any enamel within the lip area is subject to ready attack from acidic beverages because the pigments are neither encapsulated nor overglazed. Glass bottles decorated with Cd-based enamel do not appear to represent a direct health hazard but have the propensity to contaminate recycled glass products. It is recommended that decorated glassware is better regulated and that old, brightly-coloured toys are treated cautiously

Food as a source of exposure to nickel

According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), food is the main source of nickel intake by the general population. Based on the risk assessment, EFSA determined the tolerable daily intake of this element (TDI) from all sources at the level of 2.8 μg/kg body weight, which is for an adult 196 μg, while for a child 56 μg. The Benchmark Dose Lower Confidence Limit (BMDL₁₀) associated with dermatitis at 1.1 μg/kg body weight was also determined as well as the Margin of Exposure (MOE). Nickel intake in the Member States varies and depends on consumption habits. CONTAM Panel of EFSA considered the unlikely possibility of developing cancers related to the intake of nickel with food. According to experts, other harmful effects on the human body are more often identified. An additional aspect requiring further investigations that will allow an actual estimation of exposure associated with intake of this element by various groups of population is the issue of nickel absorption in the human body. The review of the EFSA opinion on the request of the European Commission planned in the near future based on the collected data as part of the action of the Commission Recommendation (EU) 2016/1111 on monitoring the presence of nickel in food will contribute to taking appropriate actions related to consumer protection, including the most vulnerable groups of population.Według Europejskiego Urzędu ds. Bezpieczeństwa Żywności (EFSA), głównym źródłem pobrania niklu przez populację generalną jest żywność. Na podstawie dokonanej oceny ryzyka EFSA wyznaczył wartość tolerowanego dziennego pobrania tego pierwiastka (Tolerable Daily Intake TDI) ze wszystkich źródeł na poziomie 2,8 μg/kg masy ciała, co stanowi dla osoby dorosłej 196 μg, natomiast dla dziecka 56 μg. Określono również najniższą dawkę wyznaczającą (Benchmark Dose Lower Confidence Limit) – BMDL₁₀ związaną z występowaniem zapaleń skórnych na poziomie - 1,1 μg/kg masy ciała oraz wyznaczono wartość marginesu narażenia (Margin of Exposure – MOE). Pobranie niklu w państwach członkowskich jest zróżnicowane i zależne od nawyków żywieniowych. Panel CONTAM EFSA uznał za mało prawdopodobną możliwość powstawania nowotworów związanych z pobraniem niklu z żywnością. Zdaniem ekspertów znacznie częściej identyfikowane są inne efekty szkodliwe na organizm człowieka. Dodatkowym aspektem wymagającym dalszych badań, który pozwoli na rzeczywiste oszacowanie narażenia związanego z pobraniem tego pierwiastka przez różne grupy populacji, jest kwestia wchłaniania niklu w organizmie człowieka. Planowana w najbliższym czasie na wniosek Komisji Europejskiej rewizja opinii EFSA, w oparciu o zgromadzone dane w ramach zalecenia Komisji (UE) nr 2016/1111 w sprawie monitorowania obecności niklu w żywności, przyczyni się do podjęcia odpowiednich działań związanych z ochroną konsumentów, w tym najbardziej wrażliwych grup populacji

Migration studies of nickel and chromium from ceramic and glass tableware into food simulants

Background. In addition to the release of lead and cadmium from ceramic and glass vessels, (acceptable limits being set by the EU 84/500/EC Directive), other harmful metals can migrate, such as nickel and chromium. Permissible migration limits for these latter metals however have not yet been set in the EU legislation. Both the toxic properties of nickel and chromium and the measures taken by the European Commission Working Group on Food Contact Materials for verifying permissible migration limits for lead, cadmium and other metals from ceramics have acted as drivers for studies on nickel and chromium release from ceramic and glass tableware. Objective. To investigate the migration of nickel and chromium into food simulants from ceramic and glassware, available on the Polish market, which are intended for coming into contact with food. Potential consumer exposure can thereby be estimated from the release of these elements into food. Materials and Methods. Tableware consisted of ceramics and glass vessels generally available on the domestic market, with inner surfaces being mainly coloured and with rim decorations. Migration of nickel and chromium studied from the ceramics was carried out in 4% acetic acid (24 ± 0.5 hrs at 22 ± 2°C), whilst that from glassware in 4% acetic acid (24 ± 0.5 hrs at 22 ± 2°C) and 0.5% citric acid (2 ± 0.1 hrs at 70 ± 2°C). The concentrations of metals which had migrated into the test solutions were measured by using flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). This analytical procedure had been previously validated by measuring nickel and chromium released into food simulants from ceramic and glass tableware where working ranges, detection limits, quantification limits, repeatability, accuracy, mean recovery and uncertainty were established. Results. Migration of nickel and chromium was measured from 172 ceramic and 52 and glass vessels samples, with all results being below the limits of quantification (LOQ = 0.02 mg/L), excepting one instance where a 0.04 mg/L concentration of nickel was found. The validated methods for measuring chromium achieved the following parameters; 0.02 to 0.80 mg/L operating range, 0.01 mg/L detection limit, 0.02 mg/L limit of quantification, 6% repeatability, 2.8% accuracy, 102% average recovery and 11% uncertainty. For the nickel method the corresponding parameters were 0.02 to 0.80 mg/L working range, 0.02 mg/L limit of quantification, 0.01 mg/L detection limit, 5% repeatability, 6.5% accuracy, 101% average recovery and 12% uncertainty. Conclusions. The tested ceramics and glassware did not pose a threat to human health regarding migration of nickel and chromium, and thus any potential exposure to these metals released from these products into food will be small. However, due to the toxicity of these metals, the migration of nickel and chromium is still required for articles coming into contact with food, which includes metalware.Wprowadzenie. Z wyrobów ceramicznych i szklanych, obok migracji ołowiu i kadmu, dla których w UE określono dopuszczalne limity (Dyrektywa 84/500/EC) może zachodzić migracja także innych szkodliwych dla zdrowia metali, w tym niklu i chromu. Dla chromu i niklu nie ustanowiono jeszcze w UE dopuszczalnych limitów migracji. Właściwości toksyczne niklu i chromu oraz podjęte przez European Commision Working Group on Food Contact Materials prace mające na celu weryfikację dopuszczalnych limitów migracji ołowiu i kadmu z wyrobów ceramicznych oraz wprowadzenie limitowania dla innych pierwiastków, skłoniły do podjęcia badań uwalniania niklu i chromu z ceramicznych i szklanych naczyń stołowych. Cel. Zbadanie migracji do płynów modelowych niklu i chromu z naczyń ceramicznych i szklanych przeznaczonych do kontaktu z żywnością, dostępnych na rynku w Polsce, w celu oszacowania wielkości potencjalnego narażenia konsumentów na te metale uwalniane z takich wyrobów do żywności. Materiał i metody. Materiał do badań stanowiły stołowe naczynia ceramiczne i naczynia szklane, głównie z barwioną powierzchnią wewnętrzną i zdobionym obrzeżem, pochodzące z obrotu handlowego. Migrację niklu i chromu z badanych wyrobów ceramicznych przeprowadzano do 4% kwasu octowego (24 ± 0,5 h w temperaturze 22 ± 2 ºC), natomiast migrację z naczyń szklanych do 4% kwasu octowego (24 ± 0,5 h w temperaturze 22 ± 2 ºC) i 0,5% kwasu cytrynowego (2 ± 0,1 h w temperaturze 70 ± 2 ºC). Zawartość badanych metali w płynach modelowych uzyskanych po migracji, oznaczano metodą płomieniowej atomowej spektrometrii absorpcyjnej (FAAS). Badania poprzedzono walidacją metody oznaczania niklu i chromu uwalnianych do płynów modelowych z ceramicznych i szklanych naczyń stołowych. Wyznaczono następujące parametry metody oznaczania chromu i niklu: zakres roboczy, granicę wykrywalności, granicę oznaczalności, powtarzalność, poprawność, średni odzysk oraz niepewność. Wyniki. Migracja niklu i chromu z 172 badanych naczyń ceramicznych i 52 naczyń szklanych, w zastosowanych warunkach badania migracji, była poniżej granicy oznaczalności metody analitycznej (LOQ) wynoszącej 0,02 mg/L, z wyjątkiem jednego naczynia, z którego migracja niklu była wyższa i wynosiła 0,04 mg/L. Zwalidowaną metodę oznaczania chromu charakteryzowały następujące parametry: zakres roboczy - od 0,02 do 0,80 mg/L, granica wykrywalności - 0,01 mg/L, granica oznaczalności - 0,02 mg/L, powtarzalność - 6%, poprawność - 2,8%, średni odzysk - 102% i niepewność - 11%. Parametry metody oznaczania niklu: zakres roboczy - od 0,02 do 0,80 mg/L, granica oznaczalności - 0,02 mg/L, granica wykrywalności - 0,01 mg/L, powtarzalność - 5%, poprawność - 6,5%, średni odzysk - 101% i niepewność -12%. Wnioski. Zbadane wyroby ceramiczne i szklane nie stanowią zagrożenia dla zdrowia człowieka w zakresie migracji niklu i chromu, a potencjalne narażenie na te metale uwalniane z tych wyrobów do żywności będzie niewielkie. Jednak, ze względu na toksyczność tych metali wskazane jest kontynowanie badań uwalniania niklu i chromu z wyrobów do kontaktu z żywnością, z uwzględnieniem naczyń metalowych

Exposure assessment of the population in Poland to the toxic effects of nickel from vegetable and their products

Background. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), vegetable and vegetable products can significantly contribute to dietary nickel intake. Consumption of vegetable across European Union can vary significantly and depends on consumption habits in individual Member States. Toxicity of Ni is dependent on the chemical form, the route of exposure and solubility of nickel compounds. Objectives. Determination of nickel content in commercially available vegetables and vegetable products and assessment of consumer exposure to Ni intake with these groups of foodstuffs. Materials and methods. 66 samples of vegetables and their products were analysed for nickel content. Nickel was determined after microwave mineralization of samples by atomic absorption spectrometry with a graphite furnace atomization (GFAAS). Nitric acid and perhydrol were used for the mineralization of the samples. The estimated exposure for adults and children was compared with the tolerable daily intake (TDI -Tolerable Daily Intake) set by the European Food Safety Authority at 2.8 μg /kg body weight (b.w.) per day. Results. Mean (MB-middle bound) Ni content from all investigated vegetable samples was 0.09 mg/kg (95th percentile MB 0.23 mg/kg). In vegetable products, mean Ni concentration was 0.191 mg/kg (95th percentile: 0.67 mg/kg). The highest nickel level was determined in the sample of roman lettuce (0.32 mg/kg), whereas lowest contamination was observed in the sample of onion (0.04 mg/kg). Contamination of investigated fruiting and leaf vegetable with nickel was slightly higher than root and bulb vegetables. The estimated average adults exposure to nickel from vegetable taking into account maximum absorption was 4.8% of TDI and 16.8% of TDI and does not pose a health risk. Exposure to nickel from vegetable products was 1.9% and 6.8% TDI, respectively. Conclusions. Obtained results demonstrate that dietary nickel intake from vegetables and their products do not constitute a significant health threat to consumers in Poland.Wprowadzenie. Warzywa i produkty warzywne należą do grupy środków spożywczych, które według Europejskiego Urzędu ds. Bezpieczeństwa Żywności (EFSA) mogą wnosić istotny udział do pobrania niklu z dietą. Spożycie warzyw w Unii Europejskiej może się znacznie różnić i zależy od nawyków konsumpcyjnych panujących w poszczególnych państwach członkowskich. Toksyczność niklu zależy od postaci chemicznej, drogi narażenia i rozpuszczalności związków niklu. Cel badań. Oznaczenie zawartości niklu w warzywach i produktach warzywnych dostępnych w obrocie handlowym oraz ocena narażenia konsumentów na pobranie niklu z tymi grupami środków spożywczych. Materiał i metody. Analizie na zawartość niklu poddano 66 próbek warzyw i ich produktów, pochodzących z obrotu handlowego. Zawartość niklu oznaczono po mineralizacji mikrofalowej próbek metodą absorpcyjnej spektrometrii atomowej z wykorzystaniem kuwety grafitowej (GFAAS). Do mineralizacji próbek wykorzystano kwas azotowy oraz perhydrol. Oszacowane narażenie w odniesieniu do osób dorosłych oraz dzieci porównano z wartością tolerowanego dziennego pobrania (TDI –Tolerable Daily Intake) ustaloną przez Europejski Urząd ds. Bezpieczeństwa Żywności ustaloną na poziomie 2,8 μg/kg m.c./dzień). Wyniki. Średnia zawartość Ni (MB – middle bound) ze wszystkich badanych próbek warzyw wyniosła 0,09 mg/kg (95-percentyl MB 0,23 mg/kg). W produktach roślinnych średnie stężenie Ni wynosiło 0,191 mg/kg (95-percentyl: 0,67 mg/kg). Najwyższy poziom niklu oznaczono w próbce sałaty rzymskiej (0,32 mg/kg), natomiast najniższe zanieczyszczenie niklem zaobserwowano w próbce cebuli (0,04 mg/kg). Zanieczyszczenie badanych warzyw owocowych i liściastych niklem było nieco wyższe niż warzyw korzeniowych i cebulowych. Oszacowane średnie narażenie dla osób dorosłych na nikiel pochodzący z warzyw, biorąc pod uwagę maksymalne wchłanianie, wyniosło 4,8% TDI i 16,8% TDI i nie stanowi zagrożenia dla zdrowia. Narażenie na nikiel z produktów warzywnych wyniosło odpowiednio: 1,9% i 6,8% TDI. Wnioski. Uzyskane wyniki wskazują, że pobranie niklu w diecie z warzyw i ich produktów nie stanowi istotnego zagrożenia dla zdrowia konsumentów w Polsce

Assessment of exposure to nickel intake with selected cereal grains and cereal-based products

Background. Cereal grains and their products are among the basic components of the diet all over the world. Their consumption varies depending on the dietary habits in each country. Apart from ingredients valuable from a health point of view, these products can also be a source of contaminants. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) included these foodstuffs in the group of main contributors to the dietary exposure to nickel by different groups of the population. Objective. The aim of the studies was to determine the nickel content in cereal grains and selected cereal products commercially available in Poland and to assess the exposure of consumers to nickel intake with these foodstuffs. Material and methods. A total of 56 samples of cereal grain and cereal products from trade were tested. Nickel content was determined after microwave mineralization of the samples by atomic absorption spectrometry with a graphite furnace atomization (GFAAS). The estimated exposure for the different groups of the population was assessed and compared with the Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) value established by the European Food Safety Authority based on an updated risk assessment at 13 μg/kg body weight (b.w.) per day. Results. The mean (MB) and 95th percentile (MB) nickel content in investigated samples of cereal grains and their products were 0.66 mg/kg and 1.93 mg/kg. The mean content of Ni in the analyzed samples of grains was 1.16 mg/kg. Obtained results in this group of products ranged from 0.10 mg/kg for rye to 4.80 mg/kg for millet. In the group of grain products, the mean (MB) concentration of nickel was 0.61 mg/kg (95th percentile (MB) 1.84 mg/kg). The highest nickel level was determined in the samples of bran, groats, and flakes compared to other grain-based products. The highest content of Ni in the group of cereal products was found in the samples of roasted buckwheat 1.81 mg/kg and oat flakes 2.53 mg/kg. Significantly lower nickel content was observed in barley groats as well as for pasta and flour. The estimated average exposure of adults and children to nickel intake with grains and grain-based products ranged from 1.1% to 13.4% of TDI and it does not pose a health risk for consumers. Conclusions. Based on the obtained results, it was found that the nickel content in the tested samples of cereals and their products does not pose a health risk, even though the contamination of individual samples was significan

Exposure assessment to lead, cadmium, zinc and copper released from ceramic and glass wares intended to come into contact with food

Background. One of the important source of food contamination with elements harmful to human health such as lead or cadmium is migration from the articles intended to come into contact with food. Ceramic and glass articles can also be a source of zinc and copper which compounds are used during the production process of vessels. Objective. Determination of migration of lead, cadmium, zinc and copper from ceramic and glass wares available on the market in Poland and assessment of consumer exposure to these elements. Material and methods. Ceramic and glass articles which were available on the retail market and mainly produced in China were tested for release of lead, cadmium, zinc and copper. Samples for testing were prepared in accordance with European Standards: EN 1388-1 and EN 1388-2 and the migration of elements into a food simulant (4% acetic acid) was measured using flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). Validated and accredited methods according to EN ISO/IEC 17025:2005 meeting the criteria set in the legislation were applied. Exposure assessment was performed taking into account actual reference doses introduced by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Results. 736 samples of ceramic and glass wares were tested. Among investigated samples for migration of lead 82% of results were below limit of quantification (LOQ = 0.1 mg/L) of the analytical method used. For cadmium zinc and copper results below LOQ were found in 94%, 79% and 100% tested samples, respectively (Cd LOQ = 0.01mg/L; Zn LOQ = 0.05 mg/L; Cu LOQ = 0.03 mg/L). Only one sample release lead in amount higher than limit set in Polish Standard PN-B-13210:1997, it was rim of the glass mug and migration value was 4.81 mg/article. In case of cadmium there were two samples which exceeded permissible migration limit, it was flat ceramic dish and the rim of the glass mug, migration values were: 0.14 mg/dm2 and 0.42 mg/article respectively. The most measurable results (above LOQ) in case of lead and cadmium were for the samples of ceramic and glass drinking vessels. Quantifiable amounts of zinc were found also in other groups of articles tested: flat and deep ceramic dishes. None of the tested articles released copper in amount higher than LOQ value. The risk assessment showed that lead and cadmium exposure for some of the samples far exceed the reference doses. For children, assuming a single use only of these vessels, these doses may be exceeded: in the case of lead, 69 times and in the case of cadmium, 8 times. Conclusions. It is the urgent need to introduce requirements into the applicable legislation for the rim area of drinking ceramic and glass vessels to reduce exposure especially by the most vulnerable groups of population such as childre

The content of lead, cadmium, arsenic, mercury and tin in fruit and their products based on monitoring studies – exposure assessment

Background. Fruit and fruit products are important part of our daily diet. In addition to the ingredients necessary for the proper functioning of the body, these products can also be a source of intake elements harmful to human health. Objective. Analysis of the results of monitoring studies conducted in Poland in 2015 concerning contamination of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg) and tin (Sn) in fruit and fruit products and exposure assessment. Material and methods. Approximately 600 samples of fresh, frozen, dried fruits, fruit preserves and canned fruits were tested. The laboratories of State Sanitary Inspection were involved in testing. Accredited and validated analytical methods were used. The test samples were prepared in accordance with the standard PN-EN 13804:2013. The contents of lead, cadmium and tin were determined by using flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) or flameless with electrothermal atomization spectrometry (GFAAS); arsenic by using hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry method (HGAAS) and mercury the "cold vapor" atomic absorption spectrometry (CVAAS) method. Results. Contamination of investigated samples with elements harmful to human health (Pb, Ca, As, Hg and Sn does not rise concern to human health and was in most cases comparable with contamination reported in other European Union countries. The estimated average exposure of adults and children to lead intake with fruit and fruit products ranged from 0.5% to 14.6% of the respective Benchmark Dose Lower Confidence Limit (BMDL) established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The mean intake of cadmium with these groups of foodstuffs was in the range 0.3 - 8.5% of the TWI value (Tolerable Weekly Intake) established by EFSA for adults and children (0.1 - 3.6% of the PTMI (Provisional Tolerable Monthly Intake) established by JECFA. In case of arsenic mean intake was in the range 0.5 - 1.6% BMDL whilst for mercury (inorganic form) intake represented 0.5 - 1.4% of TWI value established by JECFA and then confirmed by EFSA. Conclusions. Based on the obtained results, it was found that content of Pb, Cd, As, Hg and Sn in the tested samples of fruit and their products does not pose a risk to consumer health. Estimated exposure of consumers does not exceed tolerable doses established by EFSA and JECFA for these elements

Fish and seafood as a source of human exposure to methylmercury

Ryby i owoce morza są zalecanymi składnikami diety, dostarczają one pełnowartościowego białka, witamin, soli mineralnych oraz kwasów tłuszczowych omega-3. Te środki spożywcze mogą być również źródłem pobrania metylortęci przez ludzi. Artykuł ten zawiera informacje na temat źródeł narażenia na organiczne połączenia rtęci, toksyczności, metabolizmu oraz przemian rtęci w środowisku. Przedstawiono zalecenia żywieniowe przygotowane przez Komisję Europejską i państwa członkowskie w odniesieniu do spożycia ryb drapieżnych, uwzględniające najbardziej wrażliwe grupy populacji, takie jak: kobiety planujące ciążę, ciężarne, karmiące matki oraz dzieci. Na podstawie piśmiennictwa omówiono również zanieczyszczenie ryb i owoców morza rtęcią i metylortecią. Opisano rolę selenu jako czynnika, który obniża toksyczność metylortęci jak również przedstawiono informacje o potencjalnych czynnikach etiologicznych związanych z chorobą autystyczną. W artykule zwrócono również uwagę na wzrastającą ilość powiadomień w ramach europejskiego Systemu Wczesnego Ostrzegania o Niebezpiecznej Żywności i Paszach (Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed –RASFF), dotyczących zanieczyszczenia rtęcią ryb i produktów rybnych. Omówiono także regulacje prawne dotyczące maksymalnych dopuszczalnych poziomów rtęci w żywności.Fish and seafood are recommended diet constituents providing high quality protein, vitamins, minerals and omega-3 fatty acids, mainly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). However, these foodstuffs can also be the major source of methylmercury intake in humans. In general, more than 90% of the mercury in fish is found as methylmercury, but contents of methylmercury can vary considerably between species. Predatory species that are at the top of the food chain and live a long time, may accumulate higher levels of methylmercury. This paper contains information about sources of human exposure to organic compounds of mercury, toxicity, metabolism and transformation of mercury in the environment. Assessment of methylmercury by international risk assessment bodies such as the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and U.S. National Research Council (NRC) were presented. Climate changes and their influence on the mercury cycle in the environment especially mercury methylation and concentrations of methylmercury in marine species were also presented. Consumer advice prepared by European Commission and Member States as regards consumption of predatory fishes such as swordfish, tuna, shark, marlin and pike, taking into account the most vulnerable groups of population e.g. women planning pregnancy, pregnant or breastfeeding women and children were presented. Mercury and methylmercury contamination of fishes and seafood on the basis of the literature references as well as intake of mercury with fish and fish products in Poland and other European country were discussed. The role of selenium as a factor which counteracts methylmercury toxicity and protects against some neurological effects of methylmercury exposure in humans, as well as information on potential etiological factors connected with autism disorder were also described. Attention has also been drawn to increasing number of notifications to Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) concerning the contamination of fish and fish products with total mercury. European and national regulations concerning maximum permissible levels of mercury in food were also presented. Possibility of selection of different fish and seafood species, taking into account low methylmercury contamination and high contents of omega-3 fatty acids e.g. sardine, mackerel, anchovy, salmon, periwinkle, have been discussed