Forelimb proportions and the evolutionary radiation of Neornithes

Analysis of a comprehensive dataset demonstrates that the brachial index (BI = humerus length/ulna length) of modern birds (Neornithes) varies significantly between clades at all taxonomic levels, yet is strongly correlated with recent phylogenetic hypotheses. Variance in BI at the infraclass level is low, but increases rapidly during the proposed major radiation of neornithines in the Palaeocene and Eocene. Although a BI of greater than 1 is primitive for Neornithes, more basal groups of Mesozoic birds (Confuciusornithidae and some members of the diverse Enantiornithidae) had BIs comparable with those of ‘higher’ modern clades. It is possible that occupation of ecological niches by these Mesozoic clades precluded the divergence of some groups of neornithines until after the Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary. We suggest that with further analysis and data collection the relationships between flight behaviour, ecology and BI can be determined. Hence, BI may provide a useful tool for characterizing the ecology of fossil bird

FARKLI ÜRETİM YÖNTEMLERİ İLE ÜRETİLEN MİNİ İNSANSIZ HAVA ARAÇLARINDA ÜRETİM YÖNTEMİNİN PERFORMANS ÜZERİNDEKİ ETKİSİ

The relationship between wing kinematics, wing morphology and the brachial index of birds (BI=humerus length/ulna length) was examined. BI was found to differ between three groups of birds, which were classified on the basis of similar wing kinematics. In addition, a comparative analysis of a large dataset, using phylogenetically independent contrasts, suggested a significant, albeit weak, correlation between BI and four measures of wing morphology (wing loading, wing area, wing length and aspect ratio). Although wing kinematics and wing morphology are both correlated with BI in birds, the dominant selective pressure upon this ratio is probably wing kinematics. The previously identified clade specificity of BI within Neornithes is most likely because birds with similar BIs fly with kinematic similarity and closely related birds have similar flight styles. A correlation between BI and wing kinematics means that it may be possible to characterize the wing beat of fossil birds. A more robust relationship between wing morphology and BI may emerge, but only after the relationship between wing kinematics and BI is quantified. A comparative and quantitative study of wing-bone anatomy and wing kinematics is a priority for future studies of avian wing-skeleton evolution and functional morphology.<br/

Flight of Sharovipteryx: the world's first delta-winged glider

The 225 million-year-old reptile Sharovipteryx mirabilis was the world's first delta-winged glider; this remarkable animal had a flight surface composed entirely of a hind-limb membrane. We use standard delta-wing aerodynamics to reconstruct the flight of S. mirabilis demonstrating that wing shape could have been controlled simply by protraction of the femora at the knees, and by variation in incidence of a small forelimb canard. Our method has allowed us to address the question of how identifying realistic glide performance can be used to set limits on aerodynamic design in this small animal. Our novel interpretation of the bizarre flight mode of S. mirabilis is the first based directly on interpretation of the fossil itself and the first grounded in aerodynamics.<br/

Limb disparity and wing shape in pterosaurs

The limb proportions of the extinct flying pterosaurs were clearly distinct from their living counterparts, birds and bats. Within pterosaurs, however, we show that further differences in limb proportions exist between the two main groups: the clade of short-tailed Pterodactyloidea and the paraphyletic clades of long-tailed rhamphorhynchoids. The hindlimb to forelimb ratios of rhamphorhynchoid pterosaurs are similar to that seen in bats, whereas those of pterodactyloids are much higher. Such a clear difference in limb ratios indicates that the extent of the wing membrane in rhamphorhynchoids and pterodactyloids may also have differed; this is borne out by simple ternary analyses. Further, analyses also indicate that the limbs of Sordes pilosus, a well-preserved small taxon used as key evidence for inferring the extent and shape of the wing membrane in all pterosaurs, are not typical even of its closest relatives, other rhamphorhynchoids. Thus, a bat-like extensive hindlimb flight membrane, integrated with the feet and tail may be applicable only to a small subset of pterosaur diversity. The range of flight morphologies seen in these extinct reptiles may prove much broader than previously thought.<br/

Flight costs of long, sexually selected tails in hummingbirds

The elongated tails adorning many male birds have traditionally been thought to degrade flight performance by increasing body drag. However, aerodynamic interactions between the body and tail can be substantial in some contexts, and a short tail may actually reduce rather than increase overall drag. To test how tail length affects flight performance, we manipulated the tails of Anna's hummingbirds (Calypte anna) by increasing their length with the greatly elongated tail streamers of the red-billed streamertail (Trochilus polytmus) and reducing their length by removing first the rectrices and then the entire tail (i.e. all rectrices and tail covert feathers). Flight performance was measured in a wind tunnel by measuring (i) the maximum forward speed at which the birds could fly and (ii) the metabolic cost of flight while flying at airspeeds from 0 to 14 m s−1. We found a significant interaction effect between tail treatment and airspeed: an elongated tail increased the metabolic cost of flight by up to 11 per cent, and this effect was strongest at higher flight speeds. Maximum flight speed was concomitantly reduced by 3.4 per cent. Also, removing the entire tail decreased maximum flight speed by 2 per cent, suggesting beneficial aerodynamic effects for tails of normal length. The effects of elongation are thus subtle and airspeed-specific, suggesting that diversity in avian tail morphology is associated with only modest flight costs