An Analysis of Pricing Strategy and Price Dispersion on the Internet

Using prices obtained from shopbots, we test several hypotheses regarding the economics of information and optimal search. We find that price dispersion is positively (negatively) related to product price and the number of sellers in cross-sectional (time series) analysis. Price dispersion increases over time when the sample includes new entrants, but decreases in the absence of entry. Controlling for shipping charges and seller heterogeneity reduces, but does not eliminate, price dispersion. Finally, prices appear to be correlated across products and over time – low price sellers for one product (time period) generally charge low prices for all items (time periods).

DESIGN, MANUFACTURE, AND TEST CAMPAIGN OF THE WORLD’S LARGEST LNG REFRIGERATION COMPRESSOR STRINGS

LectureIncreasing demand for LNG has driven the requirement for a significant increase in LNG plant capacity. Qatargas II (QGII), a joint venture initiated by Qatar Petroleum, is committed to accomplish this while reducing plant emissions and making more efficient use of energy resources. The Qatargas II LNG project has applied the AP-XTM process for two large LNG trains (7.8 MTA) presently under construction in Qatar at Ras Laffan Industrial City (RLIC). Approximately 280 MW of refrigeration compression will be required to achieve this goal. This paper addresses the design, manufacture, and test campaign of the world’s largest LNG refrigeration compressor strings

The Collection Efficiency of Shielded and Unshielded Precipitation Gauges. Part II: Modeling Particle Trajectories

The use of windshields to reduce the impact of wind on snow measurements is common. This paper investigates the catching performance of shielded and unshielded gauges using numerical simulations. In Part II, the role of the windshield and gauge aerodynamics, as well as the varying flow field due to the turbulence generated by the shield–gauge configuration, in reducing the catch efficiency is investigated. This builds on the computational fluid dynamics results obtained in Part I, where the airflow patterns in the proximity of an unshielded and single Alter shielded Geonor T-200B gauge are obtained using both time-independent [Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS)] and time-dependent [large-eddy simulation (LES)] approaches. A Lagrangian trajectory model is used to track different types of snowflakes (wet and dry snow) and to assess the variation of the resulting gauge catching performance with the wind speed. The collection efficiency obtained with the LES approach is generally lower than the one obtained with the RANS approach. This is because of the impact of the LES-resolved turbulence above the gauge orifice rim. The comparison between the collection efficiency values obtained in case of shielded and unshielded gauge validates the choice of installing a single Alter shield in a windy environment. However, time-dependent simulations show that the propagating turbulent structures produced by the aerodynamic response of the upwind single Alter blades have an impact on the collection efficiency. Comparison with field observations provides the validation background for the model results

Impact of Wind Direction, Wind Speed, and Particle Characteristics on the Collection Efficiency of the Double Fence Intercomparison Reference

The accurate measurement of snowfall is important in various fields of study such as climate variability, transportation, and water resources. A major concern is that snowfall measurements are difficult and can result in significant errors. For example, collection efficiency of most gauge–shield configurations generally decreases with increasing wind speed. In addition, much scatter is observed for a given wind speed, which is thought to be caused by the type of snowflake. Furthermore, the collection efficiency depends strongly on the reference used to correct the data, which is often the Double Fence Intercomparison Reference (DFIR) recommended by the World Meteorological Organization. The goal of this study is to assess the impact of weather conditions on the collection efficiency of the DFIR. Note that the DFIR is defined as a manual gauge placed in a double fence. In this study, however, only the double fence is being investigated while still being called DFIR. To address this issue, a detailed analysis of the flow field in the vicinity of the DFIR is conducted using computational fluid dynamics. Particle trajectories are obtained to compute the collection efficiency associated with different precipitation types for varying wind speed. The results show that the precipitation reaching the center of the DFIR can exceed 100% of the actual precipitation, and it depends on the snowflake type, wind speed, and direction. Overall, this study contributes to a better understanding of the sources of uncertainty associated with the use of the DFIR as a reference gauge to measure snowfall

An Improved Trajectory Model to Evaluate the Collection Performance of Snow Gauges

Recent studies have used numerical models to estimate the collection efficiency\ud of solid precipitation gauges when exposed to the wind, in both\ud shielded and unshielded configurations. The models used computational fluid\ud dynamics (CFD) simulations of the airflow pattern generated by the aerodynamic\ud response to the gauge/shield geometry. These are used as initial conditions\ud to perform Lagrangian tracking of solid precipitation particles. Validation\ud of the results against field observations yielded similarities in the overall\ud behavior, but the model output only approximately reproduced the dependence\ud of the experimental collection efficiency on wind speed. This paper\ud presents an improved snowflake trajectory modeling scheme due to the inclusion\ud of a dynamically-determined drag coefficient. The drag coefficient\ud was estimated using the local Reynolds number as derived from CFD simulations\ud within a time-independent Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)\ud approach. The proposed dynamic model greatly improves the consistency of\ud results with the field observations recently obtained at the Marshall, CO Winter\ud Precipitation Testbed

Null tests of the cosmological constant using supernovae

The standard concordance model of the Universe is based on the cosmological constant as the driver of accelerating expansion. This concordance model is being subjected to a growing range of inter-locking observations. In addition to using generic observational tests, one can also design tests that target the specific properties of the cosmological constant. These null tests do not rely on parametrizations of observables, but focus on quantities that are constant only if dark energy is a cosmological constant. We use supernova data in null tests that are based on the luminosity distance. In order to extract derivatives of the distance in a model-independent way, we use Gaussian Processes. We find that the concordance model is compatible with the Union 2.1 data, but the error bars are fairly large. Simulated datasets are generated for the DES supernova survey and we show that this survey will allow for a sharper null test of the cosmological constant if we assume the Universe is flat. Allowing for spatial curvature degrades the power of the null test.IS

DESIGN, MANUFACTURE, AND TEST CAMPAIGN OF THE WORLD’S LARGEST LNG REFRIGERATION COMPRESSOR STRINGS

LectureIncreasing demand for LNG has driven the requirement for a significant increase in LNG plant capacity. Qatargas II (QGII), a joint venture initiated by Qatar Petroleum, is committed to accomplish this while reducing plant emissions and making more efficient use of energy resources. The Qatargas II LNG project has applied the AP-XTM process for two large LNG trains (7.8 MTA) presently under construction in Qatar at Ras Laffan Industrial City (RLIC). Approximately 280 MW of refrigeration compression will be required to achieve this goal. This paper addresses the design, manufacture, and test campaign of the world’s largest LNG refrigeration compressor strings