Upregulation of TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, and IRAK-2 Expression During ML-1 Cell Differentiation to Macrophages: Role in the Potentiation of Cellular Responses to LPS and LTA

12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA) induces the differentiation of human myeloid ML-1 cells to macrophages. In the current study, the expression, responsiveness, and regulation of toll-like receptors (TLRs) in TPA-induced ML-1-derived macrophages were investigated. We have found that TPA-induced differentiation of ML-1 cells was accompanied by the upregulation of TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, and CD14 expression at both the mRNA and protein levels. Interestingly, TLR1 and TLR4 protein expression on ML-1 cells could be blocked by pretreatment with U0126, suggesting the role of an Erk1/2-induced differentiation signal in this process. In addition, the expression of IRAK-2, a key member of the TLR/IRAK-2/NF-κB-dependent signaling cascade was also induced in response to TPA. Accordingly, we demonstrated an increased cellular release of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and various interleukins) upon stimulation with LPS and LTA ligands for TLR4 and TLR2, respectively. Furthermore, using luminol-dependent chemiluminescence, addition of LPS and LTA induces a sustained DPI-inhibitable generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the differentiated ML-1 cells. Together, these data suggest that the increase in the responsiveness of TPA-treated ML-1 cells to LPS and LTA occurs in response to the upregulation of their respective receptors as well as an induction of the IRAK-2 gene expression

Exposure to electronic cigarettes impairs pulmonary anti-bacterial and anti-viral defenses in a mouse model

© 2015 Sussan et al. Electronic cigarettes (E-cigs) have experienced sharp increases in popularity over the past five years due to many factors, including aggressive marketing, increased restrictions on conventional cigarettes, and a perception that E-cigs are healthy alternatives to cigarettes. Despite this perception, studies on health effects in humans are extremely limited and in vivo animal models have not been generated. Presently, we determined that E-cig vapor contains 7x1011 free radicals per puff. To determine whether E-cig exposure impacts pulmonary responses in mice, we developed an inhalation chamber for E-cig exposure. Mice that were exposed to E-cig vapor contained serum cotinine concentrations that are comparable to human E-cig users. E-cig exposure for 2 weeks produced a significant increase in oxidative stress and moderate macrophage-mediated inflammation. Since, COPD patients are susceptible to bacterial and viral infections, we tested effects of E-cigs on immune response. Mice that were exposed to E-cig vapor showed significantly impaired pulmonary bacterial clearance, compared to air-exposed mice, following an intranasal infection with Streptococcus pneumonia. This defective bacterial clearance was partially due to reduced phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages from E-cig exposed mice. In response to Influenza A virus infection, E-cig exposed mice displayed increased lung viral titers and enhanced virus-induced illness and mortality. In summary, this study reports a murine model of E-cig exposure and demonstrates that E-cig exposure elicits impaired pulmonary anti-microbial defenses. Hence, E-cig exposure as an alternative to cigarette smoking must be rigorously tested in users for their effects on immune response and susceptibility to bacterial and viral infections

Disruption of Nrf2, a Key Inducer of Antioxidant Defenses, Attenuates ApoE-Mediated Atherosclerosis in Mice

Background: Oxidative stress and inflammation are two critical factors that drive the formation of plaques in atherosclerosis. Nrf2 is a redox-sensitive transcription factor that upregulates a battery of antioxidative genes and cytoprotective enzymes that constitute the cellular response to oxidative stress. Our previous studies have shown that disruption of Nrf2 in mice (Nrf2-/-) causes increased susceptibility to pulmonary emphysema, asthma and sepsis due to increased oxidative stress and inflammation. Here we have tested the hypothesis that disruption of Nrf2 in mice causes increased atherosclerosis. Principal Findings: To investigate the role of Nrf2 in the development of atherosclerosis, we crossed Nrf2-/- mice with apoliporotein E-deficient (ApoE-/- mice. ApoE-/- and ApoE-/- Nrf2-/- mice were fed an atherogenic diet for 20 weeks, and plaque area was assessed in the aortas. Surprisingly, ApoE-/- Nrf2-/- mice exhibited significantly smaller plaque area than ApoE-/- controls (11.5% vs 29.5%). This decrease in plaque area observed in ApoE-/- Nrf2-/- mice was associated with a significant decrease in uptake of modified low density lipoproteins (AcLDL) by isolated macrophages from ApoE-/- Nrf2-/- mice. Furthermore, atherosclerotic plaques and isolated macrophages from ApoE-/- Nrf2-/- mice exhibited decreased expression of the scavenger receptor CD36. Conclusions: Nrf2 is pro-atherogenic in mice, despite its antioxidative function. The net pro-atherogenic effect of Nrf2 may be mediated via positive regulation of CD36. Our data demonstrates that the potential effects of Nrf2-targeted therapies on cardiovascular disease need to be investigated.9 page(s

Nrf2 is a critical regulator of the innate immune response and survival during experimental sepsis

Host genetic factors that regulate innate immunity determine susceptibility to sepsis. Disruption of nuclear factor-erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2), a basic leucine zipper transcription factor that regulates redox balance and stress response, dramatically increased the mortality of mice in response to endotoxin- and cecal ligation and puncture–induced septic shock. LPS as well as TNF-α stimulus resulted in greater lung inflammation in Nrf2-deficient mice. Temporal analysis of pulmonary global gene expression after LPS challenge revealed augmented expression of large numbers of proinflammatory genes associated with the innate immune response at as early as 30 minutes in lungs of Nrf2-deficient mice, indicating severe immune dysregulation. The expression profile indicated that Nrf2 has a global influence on both MyD88-dependent and -independent signaling. Nrf2-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts showed greater activation of NF-κB and interferon regulatory factor 3 in response to LPS and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)] stimulus, corroborating the effect of Nrf2 on MyD88-dependent and -independent signaling. Nrf2’s regulation of cellular glutathione and other antioxidants is critical for optimal NF-κB activation in response to LPS and TNF-α. Our study reveals Nrf2 as a novel modifier gene of sepsis that determines survival by mounting an appropriate innate immune response

Low-cost NO2 monitoring and predictions of urban exposure using universal kriging and land-use regression modelling in Mysore, India

In Low- and Middle-Income Countries, rapid urbanization has led to poorer air quality, yet pollution monitoring networks are often sparse or non-existent. Few previous studies have sought to understand the unique predictors of air pollution exposure in Indian urban environments. Our study monitored and modeled nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in Mysore, a rapidly urbanizing city in India. NO2 sampling was conducted in four seasonal campaigns (each lasting 2 weeks) in 2016-2017, at 150 sites throughout Mysore. Seasonal spatial interpolation of NO2 levels was conducted using 2 distinct models, the first utilizing a land use regression (LUR) approach and the second using universal kriging methods. Model performance was determined using adjusted R-2, and validated using leave-one-out cross validation. Measured NO2 concentrations ranged from 0.3 to 51.9 ppb across the four seasons of the study period, with higher concentrations in the center of the city. In the LUR model (R-2 = 0.535), proximity to major roads, point sources of pollution such as industrial sites and religious points of interest (PoI), land uses with high human activity, and high population density were associated with higher levels of NO2. Proximity to minor roads and coverage of land uses characterized by low human activity were inversely associated with air pollution. Cross-validation of results confirmed the reliability of each model. Few studies have applied spatially heterogeneous sampling to assess ambient air pollution levels in India. The combination of passive NO2 sampling and LUR/kriging modeling methods allowed for characterization of NO2 patterns in Mysore. While previous work indicates traffic pollution as a major contributor to ambient air pollution levels in urbanizing centers in Asia, our results indicate the influence of other pollution factors (e.g., point sources), as well as highly localized characteristics of the urban environment (e.g., proximity to religious points of interest) in urban India. Areas of Mysore consistently experienced pollution in excess of World Health Organization (WHO) health-protective guidelines for NO2