Habitat Correlates of the Red Panda in the Temperate Forests of Bhutan

Anthropogenic activities and associated global climate change are threatening the biodiversity in the Himalayas against a backdrop of poor knowledge of the region's threatened species. The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is a threatened mammal confined to the eastern Himalayas, and because of Bhutan's central location in the distributional range of red pandas, its forests are integral to the long-term viability of wild populations. Detailed habitat requirements of the red panda are largely speculative, and there is virtually no ecological information available on this species in Bhutan. Between 2007 and 2009, we established 615 presence/absence plots in a systematic sampling of resident habitat types within Jigme Dorji and Thrumshingla National Parks, Bhutan, to investigate broad and fine-scale red panda habitat associations. Additional locality records of red pandas were obtained from interviewing 664 park residents. Red pandas were generally confined to cool broadleaf and conifer forests from 2,110–4,389 m above sea level (asl), with the majority of records between 2,400–3,700 m asl on south and east-facing slopes. At a finer scale, multivariate analysis revealed that red pandas were strongly associated with old growth Bhutan Fir (Abies densa) forest dominated by a dense cover of Yushania and Arundanaria bamboo with a high density of fallen logs and tree stumps at ground level; a high density of trees, dead snags, and rhododendron shrubs in the mid-storey; and locations that were close to water. Because Bhutan's temperate forests that encompass prime red panda habitat are also integral to human subsistence and socio-economic development, there exists an inadvertent conflict between the needs of people and red pandas. As such, careful sustainable management of Bhutan's temperate forests is necessary if a balance is to be met between the socioeconomic needs of people and the conservation goals for red pandas

The Ecology of the Bhutan takin Budorcas whitei in Jigme Dorji National Park, Bhutan

The Bhutan takin Budorcas whitei, a large gregarious forest-dwelling ungulate, is endemic to Bhutan and categorized as 'vulnerable' by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The word 'takin' is used hereafter to denote both singular and plural. Prior to my work, there had been only one study on this species which investigated its diet within its summer habitat. Prior to beginning my field research on takin, I assessed its current distribution and conservation status in Bhutan from information gathered through publications, field surveys, interviews and unpublished reports. The assessment resulted in documenting some interesting facts such as establishing the Bhutan takin as endemic to Bhutan; the takin's site fidelity to hot spring and salt lick areas, and their distribution along the river valleys which are important landscape features for habitat selection. I identified additional threats to the takin like anthropogenic disturbance and disruption to migration routes, threats posed by domestic livestock including dogs, and the risk of zoonoses disease transmission. I examined takin migratory movement between their winter and summer habitat, and their summer habitat use in the Tsharijathang Valley of Jigme Dorji National Park, Bhutan, from 2013-2015 using GPS collars. Bhutan takins are seasonal migrants from warm broad-leaved forest to alpine meadow within the altitude range of 1500 m to 5550 m asl (meter above sea level, hereafter using 'm' instead of 'm asl'). GPS-collars were placed on 13 adult takins (7 males and 6 females) to document these seasonal movements. Because of animal welfare concerns, sub-adult animals could not be collared. Takin, on average, travelled about 4 km per 24-hour period, about a third of which occurred at night. There was high site fidelity and overlap of habitat in their summer range that led to short distance travel which ultimately resulted in a smaller summer home range. The Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) home range estimate for takin in the summer habitat at a 95% isopleth ranged between 3.35 - 14.21 km2, while the kernel utilization distribution (KUD) estimate ranged between 7.55 to 27.4 km2. A male takin (TM2724) collared on 8 July 2013 provided partial data on takin migration from its summer range to its winter range before the GPS collar ran out of memory on 27 September 2013. However, this inaugural migration data showed that the animal travelled 26.68 km in the rugged mountainous terrain in three days, and part of which was along a ridgeline between 5007 to 5374 m. The male migrated to the area around Zomling, Lingzhi and Barshong, Naro of Thimphu district. Habitat use by the Bhutan takin in their summer (alpine meadows) and winter (broadleaf forest) habitats was examined by comparing floristic composition in the areas that were used by takin compared to those that were not used. A collective total of 58 plots were laid in the summer habitat (30 plots, 15 each in the used and unused area) and in the winter habitat (28 plots, 14 each in the used and unused area). Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the first three principal components explained about 70 percent of the total variance between used and unused sites. PC1 had significant loadings from variables like altitude, herb count and herb mean height, PC2's significant variables were tree count and tree mean DBH while PC3 had significant loadings from shrub mean height. Analysis of variance using distance matrices showed that there were significant differences between the used and unused plots in both habitats (summer F 1, 28 = 69.36, p F 1, 26 = 3.89, p Local knowledge and perceptions by people towards the takin was assessed by conducting facetoface semi-structured interviews on 169 residents of Jigme Dorji National Park from the Laya Geog (takin summer habitat; 91 residents) and Khatey and Khamey Geogs (takin winter habitat; 78 residents). Most respondents knew the takin was the national animal and a significantly higher proportion also knew its protected status. There was a significant difference in knowledge based upon respondents' residence whereby residents in the takin's summer habitat possessed more knowledge on the vulnerable status of takin. The summer habitat has affluent residents that benefit from collection of the prized medicinal Chinese caterpillar fungus or 'Cordyceps' Ophiocordyceps sinensis; this in turn allows them better access to media (e.g. television and radio) that expose them to pertinent information and campaigns surrounding the takin. Most respondents expressed positive feelings towards the takin and supported its protection. This strong positive attitude and awareness by residents is promising but it is strongly recommended that the park develops diverse education programs targeting different age groups and learning capabilities in continuing to maintain local support and stewardship. Conservation of the takin, however, is not without its challenges and requires a commitment to reduce anthropogenic disturbance such as land use change from road construction, infrastructure for power transmission lines, unregulated harvesting of natural resources notably the prized cordyceps, competition for foraging resources from domestic livestock, and most critically, the spread of zoonotic disease transmission from domestic livestock. Understanding habitat use by takin and associated preferred habitat variables amidst various anthropogenic threats is integral towards ameliorating damage to takin habitat and preventing further loss. Furthermore, the Jigme Dorji National Park management should reinforce the implementation of the tripartite Tsharijathang Agreement whereby domestic livestock are not grazed in the Tsharijathang Valley a month prior to the takin's arrival. The valley needs urgent protection as a declared takin sanctuary to provide a safe habitat for takin during their breeding season. This valley attracts different congregating herds from several wintering habitats around Thimphu, Paro, Gasa and Punakha, and it is crucial to facilitate the current genetic exchange to increase population vigor for the long-term survival of the takin, Bhutan's national animal

Mapping Conservation Priorities and Assessing Connectivity Pathways for Threatened Mammals Under Future Climate Change in the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot of Bhutan

High species diversity and endemism within a vast area of intact and unexplored landscapes, makes the Eastern Himalayas a unique global biodiversity hotspot. The region is home to 255 native terrestrial mammal species including 75 globally threatened species such as the iconic tiger Panthera tigris, snow leopard Panthera uncia and the greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis. To complement the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, I assessed the current conservation status of native terrestrial mammal species in the Eastern Himalayas and identified the 50 most threatened species based on conservation status, endemism, range size, and evolutionary distinctiveness. Despite a mismatch between current distribution of protected areas and priority areas to conserve these threatened mammals, my findings on the extent of ecoregion protection suggests adequate remaining natural habitats to expand current Eastern Himalayan protected areas. Between 2014 and 2015, I deployed 1858 camera traps within 1129 5-km x 5-km grids over 536 days to investigate richness and diversity of mammals between protected areas, biological corridors, and intervening areas (NPAs) along an elevational gradient in Bhutan. My study revealed 18 (32%) of 56 identified mammal species were IUCN-listed threatened species. Bhutan's network of protected area and biological corridors harbor a richer mammal community than NPAs. Vegetation zones at upper and lower elevation ranges had high species richness and diversity relative to mid-elevations which had higher human presence. Finally, I assessed the ecological functionality, structural design, and management effectiveness of Bhutan's biological corridor network by integrating detailed climatic, ecological, and biological data with emphasis placed on meta-populations of threatened, wide ranging, and umbrella mammal species. To capture areas known to support high diversity of threatened species and reconcile current land use impact and climate change on biodiversity, the top seven priority areas for expansion within this network were identified. My innovative study fills a gap in existing knowledge on current progress and future prospective toward the novel idea by E.O. Wilson of securing a half earth, to conserve biodiversity, address the species-extinction crisis, and prevent collapse of vital ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and climate regulation. My work is also an important milestone in addressing knowledge gaps for conservation of threatened mammals in the Eastern Himalayas. Regional collaborative cooperation for effective transboundary research and management is necessary, and regional prioritizing of areas for biodiversity conservation is essential to prevent species extinction

Establishing baseline estimates of blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) abundance and density to sustain populations of the vulnerable snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in Western Bhutan

Context: Advances have been made in the development of reliable methods for estimating the abundance and density of large threatened mammalian predators, but there is little progress on developing population estimates for their principal prey. No standardised protocol for estimating prey populations exists, therefore different researchers use different methods. As such, there is little information on key prey species of the vulnerable snow leopard and this has hindered the preparation of effective snow leopard conservation plans. Aims: This study aimed to establish an estimated seasonal baseline population abundance and density of blue sheep in the Lingzhi Park Range (LPR) of Bhutan’s Jigme Dorji National Park over winter (December to February) and summer (May to July). It also aimed to assess the number of snow leopard individuals that the current blue sheep population can sustain in the study area. Methods: A refined double-observer survey method was used and involved walking transect lengths of 414 km in winter and 450 km in summer to estimate blue sheep abundance with the aid of 8 × 30 binoculars and 15 × 45 spotting scopes. Key results: In total, 1762 (s.e. ± 199) blue sheep individuals were recorded in winter at a density of 8.51 individuals per km2 and 2097 (s.e. ± 172) individuals in summer at a density of 9.32 individuals per km2. Mean group size of blue sheep was 38.12 individuals (s.e. ± 6) in winter and 52.36 individuals (s.e. ± 4) in summer. LPR was estimated to sustain 11-17 snow leopards in winter and 15-21 in summer. Key conclusions: LPR can be a hotspot for snow leopard conservation in western Bhutan and regionally in the eastern Himalayas, because the comparatively higher estimated blue sheep abundance and density supports possibly the highest density of snow leopards in Bhutan. The modified double-observer method used to assess blue sheep population estimates is inexpensive, robust and practical for the mountainous terrain of the Himalayas. Implications: On the basis of this study, it is recommended that a refined double-observer method is adopted as a standard technique for estimating blue sheep populations in the snow leopard range countries of the Himalayas. Snow leopard conservation plans should, additionally, include efforts to minimise threats to blue sheep populations. This refined method is also highly applicable for future surveys of gregarious mammalian taxa, such as ungulates and primates, in difficult mountainous terrain elsewhere in the world

Some Aspects of the Ecology of Ixobrychus Bitterns Nesting in Malaysia Ricefields

Data were collected on the behavioral ecology of Cinnamon Bitterns (Jxobrychus cinnamomeus) and Yellow Bitterns (I. sinensis) in Malaysia. Data on courtship displays of both species and activity rates of I. cinnamomeus show that aerial activity tends to be crepuscular. While diets are similar, with fish, amphibians and invertebrates taken, I. cinnamomeus tends to take larger aquatic prey, and I. sinensis appears to take terrestrial invertebrates. I. cinnamomeus nests only in ricefields, whereas I. sinensis nests mainly in bushes and small trees surrounding ricefields. This conforms with published accounts of the species which suggest that I. sinensis is generally more catholic in its choice of nest site and tends to nest higher in available vegetation. Received 19 March 1992, revised 5 March 1993, accepted 9 March 1993

Notes on the Social Behaviour of Wild Proboscis Monkeys (Nasalis larvatus)

This paper presents notes collected during 21 months of study on the social behaviour of proboscis monkeys at Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak, Malaysia. All mixed-sex groups seen were harems, and average group size was nine. All-male groups also occurred. Harems were spatially cohesive, but all-male groups were more scattered. Harems changed their composition frequently with both females and males switching between groups, although infants remained with their mothers for more than a year, Each haram slept close to another one by the river on most nights. Grooming between adults was rare. Mating and births occurred throughout the year, but with pronounced peaks. Allomothering was recorded, and group movements seemed to be led by the females, not the male

Patterns of species co-occurrence in a diverse Eastern Himalayan montane carnivore community

We investigated patterns of species richness and co-occurrence in a montane carnivore community within a forested landscape in Bhutan that ranged in altitude from 2000 to 3760 m above sea level, and covered an area of approximately 140 km2. Species were detected by unbaited camera traps set along animal trails and baited camera traps set away from trails. During the 6-month study, we gathered 1,329 independent mammal events from 67 camera-trap locations, of which, 145 (10.9%) were of 13 different carnivore species from five different families. Four carnivores were IUCN red-listed threatened species: tiger (Panthera tigris), marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata), dhole (Cuon alpinus), and Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus). For most camera stations where carnivores were detected, only a single carnivore species was captured on camera and there was evidence of temporal partitioning of activity between large (tiger and leopard, Panthera pardus) and small (marbled cat, golden cat Catopuma temminckii, and leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis) felids, and between two common mustelids, the Siberian weasel (Mustela sibirica) and yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula). Furthermore, we detected significant non-random spatial co-occurrence for most pairwise comparisons of carnivores despite the short timeframe of our study. This, combined with temporal patterns in activity, facilitates localized species co-occurrence in a diverse montane carnivore community

Diet and habitat selection of the leopard cat ('Prionailurus bengalensis borneoensis') in an agricultural landscape in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo

Ten leopard cats ('Prionailurus bengalensis borneoensis') were captured and radio tracked in an agricultural landscape in Sabah, Malaysia. Seventy-two leopard cat scats were analysed for diet while information on prey distribution and abundance was obtained from a concurrent study on small mammals. Mammals,name lymurids, were the major prey with Whitehead’s rat ('Maxomys whiteheadi') being the principal prey species. Leopard cats significantly preferred the relatively open oil palm habitat over both selectively logged dipterocarp forest and secondary forest fragments. Although relatively murid abundance was highest in selectively logged dipterocarp forest, oil palm harboured a higher relative abundance of Maxomys whiteheadi. Visibility and ease of movement for leopard cats was also better in oil palm, thereby possibly increasing their hunting success. We suggest that the significantly higher use of oil palm by leopard cats is related to their preference for areas with high prey 'catchability' rather than high prey density. Although secondary-forest fragments were least selected, they were important to leopard cats for resting and possibly breeding, highlighting the importance of forest fragments for the conservation of Bornean leopard cats in agricultural landscapes

Mammal richness and diversity in a Himalayan hotspot: the role of protected areas in conserving Bhutan's mammals

More than 51% of Bhutan is in a protected area (PA) network and our study demonstrates its effectiveness in conserving large and medium mammal species. We conducted camera trapping in Bhutan’s PAs, biological corridors (BCs) and intervening non-protected areas (NPAs) to investigate the richness and diversity of mammals, and assess the network’s efficacy in protecting mammals. 1858 camera traps were deployed within 1129 5-km × 5-km grids over 536 days between 2014 and 2015, resulting in 148,598 trap-nights (mean = 80 traps-nights/camera) which yielded nearly 10 million photos (mean = 5368 photos/camera trap). Fifty-six mammal species (65% of Bhutan’s 86 medium and large terrestrial mammal species) representing 18 families within seven orders were identified, of which, 18 (32.16%) are listed as threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. There was a significant difference in mammal diversity between PAs, BCs, and NPAs (PERMANOVA test; p