Global citizenship as the completion of cosmopolitanism

A conception of global citizenship should not be viewed as separate from, or synonymous with, the cosmopolitan moral orientation, but as a primary component of it. Global citizenship is fundamentally concerned with individual moral requirements in the global frame. Such requirements, framed here as belonging to the category of individual cosmopolitanism, offer guidelines on right action in the context of global human community. They are complementary to the principles of moral cosmopolitanism – those to be used in assessing the justice of global institutions and practices – that have been emphasised by cosmopolitan political theorists. Considering principles of individual and moral cosmopolitanism together can help to provide greater clarity concerning individual duties in the absence of fully global institutions, as well as clarity on individual obligations of justice in relation to emerging and still-developing trans-state institutions

Humoral immune responses to Pneumocystis jirovecii antigens in HIV-infected and uninfected young children with pneumocystis pneumonia

BACKGROUND: Humoral immune responses in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected and uninfected children with Pneumocystis pneumonia (PcP) are poorly understood. METHODS: Consecutive children hospitalized with acute pneumonia, tachypnea, and hypoxia in South Africa were investigated for PcP, which was diagnosed by real-time polymerase chain reaction on lower respiratory tract specimens. Serum antibody responses to recombinant fragments of the carboxyl terminus of Pneumocystis jirovecii major surface glycoprotein (MsgC) were analyzed. RESULTS: 149 children were enrolled of whom 96 (64%) were HIV-infected. PcP occurred in 69 (72%) of HIV-infected and 14 (26%) of HIV-uninfected children. HIV-infected children with PcP had significantly decreased IgG antibodies to MsgC compared to HIV-infected patients without PcP, but had similar IgM antibodies. In contrast, HIV-uninfected children with PcP showed no change in IgG antibodies to MsgC, but had significantly increased IgM antibodies compared to HIV-uninfected children without PCP. Age was an independent predictor of high IgG antibodies, whereas PcP was a predictor of low IgG antibodies and high IgM antibodies. IgG and IgM antibody levels to the most closely related MsgC fragments were predictors of survival from PcP. CONCLUSIONS: Young HIV-infected children with PcP have significantly impaired humoral immune responses to MsgC, whereas HIV-uninfected children with PcP can develop active humoral immune responses. The children also exhibit a complex relationship between specific host factors and antibody levels to MsgC fragments that may be related to survival from PcP

The Relationship between Pneumocystis infection in animal and human Hosts, and climatological and environmental air pollution factors: a systematic review

BACKGROUND: Over the past decade, there has been rising interest in the interaction of Pneumocystis with the environment. This interest has arisen in part from the demonstration that environmental factors have important effects on the viability and transmission of microbes, including Pneumocystis. Environmental factors include climatological factors such as temperature, humidity, and precipitation, and air pollution factors including carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter. METHODS: We undertook a systematic review in order to identify environmental factors associated with Pneumocystis infection or PCP, and their effects on human and animal hosts. RESULTS: The systematic review found evidence of associations between Pneumocystis infection in animal and human hosts, and climatological and air pollution factors. Data from human studies infers that rather than a seasonal association, presentation with PCP appears to be highest when the average temperature is between 10 and 20°C. There was evidence of an association with hospitalization with PCP and ambient air pollution factors, as well as evidence of an effect of air pollution on both systemic and bronchoscopic lavage fluid humoral responses to Pneumocystis. Interpretation of human studies was confounded by possible genetically-determined predisposition to, or protection from infection. CONCLUSIONS: This systematic review provides evidence of associations between Pneumocystis infection in both animal and human hosts, and climatological and environmental air pollution factors. This information may lead to an improved understanding of the conditions involved in transmission of Pneumocystis in both animal and human hosts. Such knowledge is critical to efforts aimed at prevention