EOCENE, OLIGOCENE AND MIOCENE NATICID GASTROPODS OF NORTHERN ITALY

The present paper covers 77 species and six subspecies of naticid gastropods occurring in the Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene units of Northern Italy; all are described and commented on in the systematic account. Forty-two taxa are identified as formerly described ones; of these, 16 are associated with a generic name different from the previous one, and four are ranked at a different taxonomic level. Twenty-four taxa are proposed as new and the rest likely represent undescribed species, but more, better preserved material is required in order to establish their identity and to name them. Of the 83 taxa considered, 17 are assigned to the genus Cochlis Röding, 1798, one belongs in Cryptonatica Dall, 1892, another belongs in Tanea Marwick, 1931, 11 are members of the genus Tectonatica Sacco, 1890, three are included in Ampullonatica Sacco, 1890, one belongs in Eunaticina Fischer, 1885, 20 are assigned to Euspira Agassiz in J. Sowerby, 1837, three belong in Neverita Risso, 1826, five belong in Payraudeautia Bucquoy, Dautzenberg & Dollfus,1883, two agree with the characters of Pliconacca Cossmann & Martin in Martin, 1914, four are members of Polinices Montfort, 1810, two belong in Sigatica Meyer & Aldrich, 1886, four belong in Sigaretotrerma Sacco, 1890, and nine have the characters of the genus Sinum Röding, 1798. All genera are discussed in terms of type species designation, distinctive characters and subfamilial affiliation (when different from the current one).  The character analysis has shown that the measurable elements of the protoconch along with its microsculpture (if any) are diagnostic in many species of all subfamilies. The features of the outer surface of the calcareous operculum proved to be diagnostic in the Pliocene and Recent naticine species. In the present case, the operculum of only four Cochlis species is known, readily differentiating them from one another. The umbilical characters, i.e. umbilicus width and presence/absence and strength of inner spiral structures, proved to be of variable utility in identifying species. The inner umbilical characters are never species-diagnostic in the case of the naticine taxa, particularly those of Cochlis. The inner structures, primarily presence/absence, number and strength of cordlets or threads on the umbilical bottom, are more effective in distinguishing poliniceine taxa. The umbilical callus can be used diagnostically for a limited number of naticine and poliniceine taxa. The exterior sculpture of the teleoconch (absent in the naticine and in most poliniceine taxa) is well developed in all the sinine species. In the case of Sigaretotrema and Sinum, the sculptural characters proved to be relevant in species recognition. The color pattern is diagnostic in most of the taxa in which this character is preserved. The shell morphology and the apertural characters are relevant only in a few cases. In the absence of diagnostic elements, a combination of all characters can help in recognizing species

Marine and freshwater shell exploitation in the Early Upper Palaeolithic. Re-examination of the assemblages from Fumane Cave (NE Italy).

The making and use of personal ornaments has been at the centre of a vibrant debate on the origin of modern cognitive behaviour associated with Anatomically Modern Humans within and outside Africa. The Aurignacian deposits of Fumane Cave (NE Italy) offer unique archaeological records in which it is possible to observe evidence of the main cultural symbolic features of European Anatomically Modern Humans. The aim of this contribution is to enhance our knowledge about the ethno-cultural diversity of this period by re-examining shell assemblages associated with personal ornaments. Taxonomical, palaeoecological and taphonomical analyses were performed on a rich assemblage of marine shells retrieved from the Protoaurignacian and Early Aurignacian contexts of Fumane Cave. Over 800 shells (both perforated and unperforated) were recovered, representing 68 different taxa, including 56 gastropods, 11 bivalves and 1 scaphopod. Direct AMS dating of some perforated shells (Homalopoma sanguineum, Nassarius circumcinctus, and Glycymeris nummaria) show strong consistency with other 14C dates obtained from the same sedimentary units, demonstrating that shells were collected on beaches dated to the Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS3). A range of use-wear traces and ochre residues observed at stereomicroscope and scanning electron microscope levels on well-preserved perforation edges indicates that the shells were systematically manufactured and used as personal ornaments. Although no clear differences have been observed between the two assemblages, comparisons within the techno-complex confirm that the Aurignacian of Fumane Cave was under the influence of the Southern European ethno-linguistic group

An Ochered Fossil Marine Shell From the Mousterian of Fumane Cave, Italy

A scanty but varied ensemble of finds challenges the idea that Neandertal material culture was essentially static and did not include symbolic items. In this study we report on a fragmentary Miocene-Pliocene fossil marine shell, Aspa marginata, discovered in a Discoid Mousterian layer of the Fumane Cave, northern Italy, dated to at least 47.6-45.0 Cal ky BP. The shell was collected by Neandertals at a fossil exposure probably located more than 100 kms from the site. Microscopic analysis of the shell surface identifies clusters of striations on the inner lip. A dark red substance, trapped inside micropits produced by bioeroders, is interpreted as pigment that was homogeneously smeared on the outer shell surface. Dispersive X-ray and Raman analysis identify the pigment as pure hematite. Of the four hypotheses we considered to explain the presence of this object at the site, two (tool, pigment container) are discarded because in contradiction with observations. Although the other two (“manuport”, personal ornament) are both possible, we favor the hypothesis that the object was modified and suspended by a ‘thread’ for visual display as a pendant. Together with contextual and chronometric data, our results support the hypothesis that deliberate transport and coloring of an exotic object, and perhaps its use as pendant, was a component of Neandertal symbolic culture, well before the earliest appearance of the anatomically modern humans in Europe

An Ochered Fossil Marine Shell From the Mousterian of Fumane Cave, Italy

A scanty but varied ensemble of finds challenges the idea that Neandertal material culture was essentially static and did not include symbolic items. In this study we report on a fragmentary Miocene-Pliocene fossil marine shell, Aspa marginata, discovered in a Discoid Mousterian layer of the Fumane Cave, northern Italy, dated to at least 47.6-45.0 Cal ky BP. The shell was collected by Neandertals at a fossil exposure probably located more than 100 kms from the site. Microscopic analysis of the shell surface identifies clusters of striations on the inner lip. A dark red substance, trapped inside micropits produced by bioeroders, is interpreted as pigment that was homogeneously smeared on the outer shell surface. Dispersive X-ray and Raman analysis identify the pigment as pure hematite. Of the four hypotheses we considered to explain the presence of this object at the site, two (tool, pigment container) are discarded because in contradiction with observations. Although the other two (“manuport”, personal ornament) are both possible, we favor the hypothesis that the object was modified and suspended by a ‘thread’ for visual display as a pendant. Together with contextual and chronometric data, our results support the hypothesis that deliberate transport and coloring of an exotic object, and perhaps its use as pendant, was a component of Neandertal symbolic culture, well before the earliest appearance of the anatomically modern humans in Europe

Re-examination of marine shells assemblage from Proto-Aurignacian of Grotta di Fumane, Italy. An atelier of jewellery.

The making and the use of personal ornaments is one of the main debates about the systematic human behaviour that occurred during the Upper Palaeolithic [1] and, in particular, shells beads complexes found in Aurignacian deposits play a key role. The Proto-Aurignacian levels of Fumane Cave (Northern Italy) [2] are a valid example in which it is possible to observe evidence of the main cultural symbolic features of European Anatomically Modern Humans [3]. The aim of this contribution is to improve data on the Aurignacian ethno-cultural diversity, as observed in the previous work [4], on the base of a large reexamination of the assemblages doing the taxonomical, palaaeoecological and taphonomical analyses. In fact, the Cave have yielded an extremely rich and varied collection of personal ornaments, composed of four grooved red deer incisors and over 900 shell beads that belong to 73 different taxa in total, 62 of which are representative of the class of Gastropoda, 10 of the class of Bivalvia and 1 of Scaphopoda. Direct AMS dating of perforated shells belonging to Homalopoma sanguineum, Nassarius circumcinctus, and Glycymeris insubrica are consistent with other 14C ages, obtained from the sedimentary units, and demonstrate that the shells were gathered on MIS3 beaches [5]. The collection is composed of unperforated and mostly perforated shells. A range of use-wear traces and ochre residues observed on well preserved perforation edges whit Leica S6D electronic binocular microscope and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), indicate that the shells were used as personal ornaments. The habitants of the cave chose smaller and most colourful species and Homalopoma sanguineum is indeed the most represented. Moreover, the analysis of spatial distribution of shells remains into the cave related to the taphonomical analyses, proves that the eastern zone of the cave entrance was probably used like a cache and like an atelier area, in which the habitants made their shells beads jewellery

Details of the surface of <i>Aspa</i><i>marginata</i> shells.

<p>Above, location of the micrographs (a–c) taken on the Fumane <i>Aspa</i><i>marginata</i>; d-e: inner lips of two <i>Aspa</i><i>marginata</i> from Pliocene deposits close to Asti, Piemonte region. Notice in <i>b</i> the palympsest of striations present on the inner lip of the archaeological specimen. Scales = 100 µm unless indicated otherwise.</p

<i>Aspa</i><i>marginata</i> shells.

<p>The broken <i>Aspa</i><i>marginata</i> shell (a) from the Mousterian stratigraphic Unit A9 of Fumane Cave and three complete natural fossil shells (b–d) of the same species from Pliocene deposits close to Asti, Piemonte region, Italy.</p

Estimation of the original size of the broken <i>Aspa</i><i>marginata</i> from Fumane.

<p>Estimation (gray symbols) of the original height (H) and width (W) have been obtained by correlating the diameter of the last body whorl suture (DS) with the height (black squares) and width (black dots) of three fossil specimens from Pliocene deposits close to Asti, Piemonte region.</p

Comparison of Raman spectra.

<p>Raman spectra of the red substance trapped in two different pits on the surface of the Fumane <i>Aspa</i><i>marginata</i> shell (a, b) and reference spectra for hematite (c, d, e) from the Rruff database [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0068572#B99" target="_blank">99</a>].</p

Outer surface of an <i>Aspa</i><i>marginata</i> shell from the reference collection (a, and from the Fumane specimen (b–f).

<p>Notice the presence on both shells of pits produced by bioeroders associated, at Fumane, with networks of micro-grooves (c) due to the same taphonomic agent. All micro-concavities on the Fumane specimen (b–f), including pits truncated by the shell fracture (d) are filled with a red substance and prominent areas are affected by a slight polish (e–f).</p