Operationalizing the soil health metaphor to create sustainable food systems, with a focus on smallholder farming in the Global South

- Restoring / enhancing soil health is key for sustainable intensification and regenerative agriculture in the Global South, while reducing vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate change. - A flexible framework is proposed that can be used to target, monitor and adapt soil health interventions with relevant stakeholders - Development of biological soil health indicators and assessment methods require more research – given the key role of soil biology for soil health/functions - High fertilizer costs, attention for soil health have led to the promotion of “smallholder-friendly” “biofertilizers” especially in Latin America, but scientific evidence and mechanistic understanding is lacking. - Robust, hypothesis based, experimental research is needed to develop targeted, proven methods, alongside feasibility studies and development of business model

Cadmium in cacao: why it occurs, how it is regulated, and why it is a concern for producers

The Clima-LoCa project is a regional project led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), implemented with research partners from Latin America and Europe and funded by the European Commission. This project contributes to the objectives of the 2018 call for “Climate- Relevant Innovation through Research in Agriculture” of the EC-led platform DeSIRA (Development-Smart Innovation through Research in Agriculture), based on the ambition to improve research mobilization and innovation capacity contributing to the sustainable development of the cacao sector. The project addresses important challenges related to the resilience, competitiveness, and inclusiveness of the growing cacao sector. Here, resilience refers to the capacity of smallholder producers, and other value chain actors, to mitigate the negative impacts of new EU food safety regulations on cadmium in cacao, and of climate change. https://climaloca.org/. This first Policy Brief of the Clima-LoCa project deals with commonly asked questions about the origin of cadmium in cacao and about the interpretations and consequences of the EU food safety regulations. Key Messages: plants and can pose health risks to humans when cacao is consumed; food safety regulations, especially since 2019 in the European Union, restrict acceptable concentrations of cadmium in cacao products such as chocolate and cocoa powder. This has ramifications for the cacao sector worldwide as many farmers, particularly in Latin America, may lose market access if they cannot meet these regulations; actors across the cacao value chain, including farmers, must be informed and supported to adapt to these regulations

Cadmio en cacao: de dónde viene, cómo se regula y por qué preocupa a los productores

Clima-LoCa es un proyecto regional liderado por la Alianza de Bioversity International y el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), implementado en colaboración con socios en investigación de América Latina y Europa y financiado por la Comisión Europea. Este proyecto contribuye a cumplir los objetivos de la convocatoria de 2018 sobre “Innovaciones relacionadas con el clima mediante investigación agrícola” de la plataforma liderada por la CE, DeSIRA (Development-Smart Innovation through Research in Agriculture), que se basa en el anhelo de mejorar la movilización de la investigación y la capacidad de innovación para contribuir al desarrollo sostenible del sector cacaotero. Este proyecto aborda desafíos importantes relacionados con la resiliencia, competitividad e inclusión del creciente sector cacaotero. Aquí, resiliencia se refiere a la capacidad de los pequeños productores y otros actores de la cadena de valor, de mitigar los impactos negativos de los nuevos reglamentos de inocuidad alimentaria de la UE sobre cadmio en cacao, y del cambio climático. https://climaloca.org/. Este primer número de Políticas en Síntesis se ocupa de preguntas frecuentes acerca del origen del cadmio en cacao y acerca de las interpretaciones y consecuencias de los reglamentos de inocuidad alimentaria de la UE. Mensajes clave: El cadmio es un metal pesado que se produce de manera natural en el suelo, es absorbido por las plantas de cacao y puede suponer un riesgo para la salud de los seres humanos cuando se consume cacao; los reglamentos de inocuidad alimentaria, en especial a partir 2019 en la Unión Europea, restringen las concentraciones aceptables de cadmio en productos del cacao, como el chocolate y el cacao en polvo, esto tiene repercusiones para el sector cacaotero a nivel mundial, pues muchos agricultores, en particular de América Latina y el Caribe, perderían su acceso a los mercados si no logran cumplir con dichos reglamentos; los actores de las cadenas de valor del cacao, entre ellos agricultores, deben recibir información y apoyo para poder adaptarse a dichos reglamentos

Regenerative agriculture for low-carbon and resilient coffee farms: A practical guidebook. Version 1.0

For decades, global coffee consumption has grown, as tastes and offerings for consumers have increased around the world, and global demand for coffee will continue to grow in the years to come. At the same time, climate change presents coffee producers and other supply chain actors with major challenges. Its impacts are already reducing the area that is well suited for growing coffee, and this lends urgency to the adoption of farming strategies than can secure future coffee supplies and the livelihoods of coffee-producing families. Major efforts are also needed to lower the contribution of agri-food systems, including coffee, to climate change and other negative environmental impacts, such as land degradation and biodiversity loss. Regenerative agriculture provides coffee producers with a means to transform their farms by restoring and conserving soil, water and biodiversity, thus building resilience in the face of climate change. This approach also creates opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon storage on farms, while increasing farm income through diversification. Regenerative agriculture offers the further advantage of flexibility, based on principles that apply to both small- and large-scale production across many diverse conditions. As a result, this approach can address multiple environmental and production challenges in ways that are socially and economically viable. Designed for field agronomists and technicians in the global coffee sector, this guidebook aims to help identify the best regenerative practices and adapt them to different origins, farm types and agroecological conditions. Each region and farm type has its own requirements. For this reason, we highlight key principles and a wide array of practices that can be applied flexibly and combined to enhance the sustainability and resilience of coffee farms. In other words, this guidebook describes the “what” and “why” of regenerative agriculture but does not prescribe “how” it should be implemented. Instead, we offer tools that enable agricultural extensionists to support farmers in the transition to regenerative agriculture by selecting the practices that best match specific needs, objectives and available resources, and by adapting them to the local context

Effects of the EU food safety regulation on cadmium on the cacao value chains of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru

This briefing note combines information from three country reports conducted between 2021 and 2022, as well as relevant findings from the available literature to examine the current state of knowledge of the spatial distribution of Cd content in cacao farms in the three countries, how the EU regulation has affected different stakeholders, and how they are managing the problem. With the information presented in this document, we also improve and update literature available to date. The effects of the EU food safety regulations on cadmium in cacao (EU 488/2014 – EU 2021/1323 of 10 of August 2021) vary markedly between and within countries due to differences in markets and value chain structures. The regulation has caused severe localized impacts in specific cacao growing areas, nevertheless in general the impacts have been minor. Exporting companies and cooperatives are facing operational cost increases of up to 20%, related to Cd mapping, blending of cacao beans, increased traceability demands, marketing efforts, and additional laboratory testing. They also experience substantially lower prices and foregone incomes from changes in their clients. This has been critical for specialized cooperatives and producers in areas with high bean Cd. Changes in export destination for cacao during the last 4 years cannot solely be attributed to the regulation, but these represent foregone incomes in 2020 of nearly USD 3.4 million in Peru and USD 1.6 million in Colombia, equivalent to 2.4% and 6% of the countries’ cacao export value respectively. Adoption of similar food safety regulations by other importing countries may further limit the adaptation capacity of exporters and cooperatives

Nitrogen acquisition by two U. humidicola genotypes differing in biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) capacity and associated microorganisms

Biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) has been considered a plant strategy to increase N use efficiency by reducing N losses via N2O emissions or nitrate leaching. However, recent studies have revealed no difference in gross nitrate production among Urochloa humidicola genotypes with previously described high- and low-BNI capacity and pointed towards a crucial role for microbial N immobilization. In the current greenhouse study, we compared the 15 N acquisition by two U. humidicola genotypes (with high- and low-BNI capacity) and their soil-associated microorganisms at four points in time after fertilization (50 kg N ha−1). Soil microorganisms slightly out-competed both genotypes during the first 24 h after fertilization, and microorganisms associated with high-BNI genotype immobilized more N than microbes associated with low-BNI plants. Nevertheless, by the end of the experiment, low-BNI plant genotype had acquired more 15 N, despite higher to N2O emissions. Furthermore, higher 15 N root-to-shoot transfer was observed in low-BNI plants, potentially indicating higher contribution of nitrate to plant N uptake. In conclusion, our results confirm higher importance of microbial N immobilization in high-BNI genotypes, at least in the short-term. However, this did not result in higher N uptake by the high BNI genotype during the first 3 weeks after fertilization as could be expected. Long-term field studies are required to better understand the implications of direct (BNI sensu stricto) and indirect mechanisms (including differences in rhizosphere microbial biomass, activity and composition between high- and low-BNI genotypes), processes on plant N use efficiency, N storage in soil, and N losses to the environment

Indicadores biofisicos de la Estructura Agroecological Principal (EAP) para el co-deseno de SAF cacao en dos zonas productora de Tumaco (Narino)

El co-diseño de sistemas agroforestales (SAF) implica entender la estructura y función de los sistemas, no solo a nivel productivo, sino también a nivel ecosistémico y cultural. Lo anterior, porque las decisiones que toman los agricultores, sobre cómo arreglar espacialmente los sistemas productivos, responden a motivaciones productivas y no productivas, las cuales se basan en la experiencia y evidencia empírica local. Sin embargo, estas decisiones pueden ser mejor orientadas a partir del análisis de información cartográfica, indicadores de paisaje y de aspectos socioculturales. En este trabajo, enmarcado en el programa rutas PDET para la estabilización territorial, se caracterizaron 100 unidades productivas agropecuarias (UPAs) de cacao en dos zonas productoras del municipio de Tumaco (Nariño). En el presente trabajo se exponen los resultados de cuatro indicadores biofísicos que han sido usados para el análisis de estructura agroecológica principal (EAP), como herramienta de co-diseño de los SAF cacao a nivel predial, pero también como instrumento de planificación a escala de paisaje. La conexión de las UPAs con la Estructura Ecológica Principal del Paisaje (CEEP) no muestra correlación con los diferentes parámetros de paisaje evaluados, sin embargo, si se identifica que UPAs cacaoteras con arboles de más de 10 años tienen mayor conectividad con el paisaje, en comparación con UPAs de cacao de menor edad. Además, son estás fincas en las que hay mayor porcentaje de uso del suelo (USC) con coberturas diversificadas (SAF cacao, áreas de barbecho y zonas de conservación) y mayor conectividad externa (CE) con setos y cercas vivas. La conectividad interna (CI) de las UPAs es baja, y es quizá el indicador biofísico que más impacta de manera negativa la EAP. De lo anterior se interpreta que, bajo el análisis de paisaje, si bien los componentes de los SAF de cacao por si solos contribuyen en la EAP, hay que implementar acciones que mejoren la conectividad interna y externa, además del establecimiento y ampliación de áreas de conservación, que contribuyan a mejorar la integración de las fincas cacaoteras con el paisaje

Exclusion of soil macrofauna did not affect soil quality but increased crop yields in a sub-humid tropical maize-based system

Soil macrofauna such as earthworms and termites are involved in key ecosystem functions and thus considered important for sustainable intensification of crop production. However, their contribution to tropical soil and crop performance, as well as relations with agricultural management (e.g. Conservation Agriculture), are not well understood. This study aimed to quantify soil macrofauna and its impact on soil aggregation, soil carbon and crop yields in a maize-soybean system under tropical sub-humid conditions. A field trial was established in Western Kenya in 2003 with tillage and residue retention as independent factors. A macrofauna exclusion experiment was superimposed in 2005 through regular insecticide applications, and measurements were taken from 2005 to 2012. Termites were the most abundant macrofauna group comprising 61% of total macrofauna numbers followed by ants (20%), while few earthworms were present (5%). Insecticide application significantly reduced termites (by 86 and 62%) and earthworms (by 100 and 88%) at 0-15 and 15-30 cm soil depth respectively. Termite diversity was low, with all species belonging to the family of Macrotermitinae which feed on wood, leaf litter and dead/dry grass. Seven years of macrofauna exclusion did not affect soil aggregation or carbon contents, which might be explained by the low residue retention and the nesting and feeding behavior of the dominant termites present. Macrofauna exclusion resulted in 34% higher maize grain yield and 22% higher soybean grain yield, indicating that pest damage – probably including termites - overruled any potentially beneficial impact of soil macrofauna. Results contrast with previous studies on the effects of termites on plant growth, which were mostly conducted in (semi-) arid regions. Future research should contribute to sustainable management strategies that reduce detrimental impact due to dominance of potential pest species while conserving soil macrofauna diversity and their beneficial functions in agroecosystems