Influence of Rootstock on Citrus Tree Growth: Effects on Photosynthesis and Carbohydrate Distribution, Plant Size, Yield, Fruit Quality, and Dwarfing Genotypes

Citrus species are the most widely produced fruit crops in the world, and Spain is one of the leading citrus producers that supply the fresh market. Rootstocks greatly influence variety behaviour as it ensures tolerance to abiotic stress conditions, as well as the provision of minerals and water for the total plant, and consequently impact crop yield and fruit quality. So, rootstock choice is one of the most important decisions a grower makes when establishing commercial citrus orchards. In this chapter, we attempted to provide an overview of the response in terms of plant growth, fruit quality and yield parameters of several citrus cultivar trees grafted onto different commercial rootstocks, plus new hybrids and some dwarfing genotypes, to reduce costs in some cultural practices. In particular, we considered the rootstock influence on scion photosynthetic capacity linked to carbohydrate distribution for plant vegetative and reproductive development

Screening of ‘King’ Mandarin Hybrids as Tolerant Citrus Rootstocks to Flooding Stress

This work compares the tolerance to long-term anoxia conditions (35 days) of five new citrus ‘King’ mandarin (Citrus nobilis L. Lour) Poncirus trifoliata ((L.) Raf.) hybrids (named 0501XX) and Carrizo citrange (CC, Citrus sinensis (L.) Osb. Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf.), the widely used citrus rootstock in Spain. Growth parameters, chlorophyll concentration, gas exchange and fluorescence parameters, water relations in leaves, abscisic acid (ABA) concentration, and PIP1 and PIP2 gene expressions were assessed. With a waterlogging treatment, the root system biomass of most hybrids went down, and the chlorophyll a and b concentrations substantially dropped. The net CO2 assimilation rates (An) and stomatal conductance (gs) lowered significantly due to flooding, and the transpiration rate (E) closely paralleled the changes in gs. The leaf water and osmotic potentials significantly increased in most 0501 hybrids. As a trend, flooding stress lowered the ABA concentration in roots from most hybrids, but increased in the leaves of CC, 05019 and 050110. Under the control treatment (Ct) conditions, most 0501 hybrids showed higher PIP1 and PIP2 expressions than the control rootstock CC, but were impaired due to the flooding conditions in 05019 and 050110. From this study, we conclude that 0501 genotypes develop some adaptive responses in plants against flooding stress such as (1) stomata closure to prevent water loss likely mediated by ABA levels, and (2) enhanced water and osmotic potentials and the downregulation of those genes regulating aquaporin channels to maintain water relations in plants. Although these traits seemed especially relevant in hybrids 050110 and 050125, further experiments must be done to determine their behavior under field conditions, particularly their influence on commercial varieties and their suitability as flooding-tolerant hybrids for replacing CC, one of the main genotypes that is widely used as a citrus rootstock in Spain, under these condition

Gene Expression under Short-Term Low Temperatures: Preliminary Screening Method to Obtain Tolerant Citrus Rootstocks

Climate change and global warming are leading to a change in weather patterns toward hot and cold waves. Citrus fruits are a tropical or subtropical crop whose growth is altered by changes in weather patterns. Thus, in the present work, two experiments are evaluated to obtain a screening method to select citrus rootstocks that help us to select new low-temperature-tolerant plant materials. One cold experiment was carried out with the Poncirus trifoliata and Citrus macrophylla rootstocks at 4 °C for 4, 8, 24 and 56 h. A second experiment was performed at 4 °C for 5 days with subsequent acclimatization lasting 0, 5, 10 and 24 h. The expression of the cold response genes CAMTA1, CAMTA3, CAMTA5, CBF1, ICE1 and COR413 IM1 was quantified. The results showed that the best rootstock selection strategy was the second experiment, as a higher expression of the genes CAMTA3, CAMTA5, CBF1 and COR413 IM1 was seen in the tolerant genotype P. trifoliata. We quantified the gene expression of proline biosynthesis P5CS1, dOAT and the proline transporters PROT1 and PROT2; the concentration of the amino acid proline in leaves was also quantified. These results once again showed that the best experiment to differentiate between tolerant and sensitive rootstocks was the second experiment with acclimation time

Bionate biocompatibility: in vivo study in rabbits

Response to foreign materials includes local tissue reaction, osteolysis, implant loosening, and migration to lymph nodes and organs. Bionate 80A human explants show minor wear and slight local tissue reaction, but we do not know the response at the spinal cord, nerve roots, lymph nodes, or distant organs. This study aims to figure out reactions against Bionate 80A when implanted at the spinal epidural space of 24 20-week-old New Zealand white rabbits. In one group of 12 rabbits, we implanted Bionate 80A on the spinal epidural space, and another group of 12 rabbits was used as the control group. We studied tissues, organs, and tissue damage markers on blood biochemistry, urine tests, and necropsy. The animals' clinical parameters and weight showed no statistically significant differences. At 3 months, the basophils increased slightly in the implant group, platelets decreased in all, and at 6 months, implanted animals showed slight eosinophilia, but none of these changes was statistically significant. External, organ, and spinal tissue examination showed neither toxic reaction, inflammatory changes, or noticeable differences between groups or survival periods. Under microscopic examination, the Bionate 80A particles induced a chronic granulomatous response always outside the dura mater, with giant multinucleated cells holding phagocytized particles and no particle migration to lymph nodes or organs. Thus, it was concluded that Bionate particles, when implanted in the rabbit lumbar epidural space, do not generate a significant reaction limited to the surrounding soft tissues with giant multinucleated cells. In addition, the particles did not cross the dura mater or migrate to lymph nodes or organs

Effect of Rootstock on the Volatile Profile of Mandarins

Mandarin production has increased in recent years, especially for fresh consumption, due to its ease of peeling, its aroma, and its content of bioactive compounds. In this sense, aromas play a fundamental role in the sensory quality of this fruit. The selection of the appropriate rootstock is crucial for the success of the crop and its quality. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify the influence of 9 rootstocks (“Carrizo citrange”, “Swingle citrumelo CPB 4475”, “Macrophylla”, “Volkameriana”, “Forner-Alcaide 5”, “Forner-Alcaide V17”, “C-35”, “Forner-Alcaide 418”, and “Forner-Alcaide 517”) on the volatile composition of “Clemenules” mandarin. For this, the volatile compounds of mandarin juice were measured using headspace solid-phase micro-extraction in a gas chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer (GC-MS). Seventy-one volatile compounds were identified in the analyzed samples, with limonene being the main compound. The results obtained showed that the rootstock used in the cultivation of mandarins affects the volatile content of the juice, with “Carrizo citrange”, “Forner-Alcaide 5”, “Forner-Alcaide 418”, and “Forner-Alcaide 517” being those that presented the highest concentration

A cross population between D. kaki and D. virginiana shows high variability for saline tolerance and improved salt stress tolerance

[EN] Persimmon (Diospyros kaki Thunb.) production is facing important problems related to climate change in the Mediterranean areas. One of them is soil salinization caused by the decrease and change of the rainfall distribution. In this context, there is a need to develop cultivars adapted to the increasingly challenging soil conditions. In this study, a backcross between (D. kaki x D. virginiana) x D. kaki was conducted, to unravel the mechanism involved in salinity tolerance of persimmon. The backcross involved the two species most used as rootstock for persimmon production. Both species are clearly distinct in their level of tolerance to salinity. Variables related to growth, leaf gas exchange, leaf water relations and content of nutrients were significantly affected by saline stress in the backcross population. Water flow regulation appears as a mechanism of salt tolerance in persimmon via differences in water potential and transpiration rate, which reduces ion entrance in the plant. Genetic expression of eight putative orthologous genes involved in different mechanisms leading to salt tolerance was analyzed. Differences in expression levels among populations under saline or control treatment were found. The 'High affinity potassium transporter' (HKT1-like) reduced its expression levels in the roots in all studied populations. Results obtained allowed selection of tolerant rootstocks genotypes and describe the hypothesis about the mechanisms involved in salt tolerance in persimmon that will be useful for breeding salinity tolerant rootstocks.This study was funded by the IVIA and the European Funds for Regional Development. F. G.M.was funded by a PhD fellowship from the European Social Fund and the Generalitat Valenciana (ACIF/2016/115). 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Los genes DEVIL y su papel en el desarrollo del fruto de Arabidopsis thaliana

[EN] In Arabidopsis, DEVIL genes have been identified like a small peptides encoded by a large gene family, that are located in the cell plasma membrane. Overexpression of DEVIL genes shows a strong phenotype in fruit, however the loss of function mutants show no apparent phenotype, so its function is unknown.[ES] En Arabidopsis, se han identificado unos péptidos llamados DEVIL de pequeño tamaño, codificados por una gran familia génica, que en la célula se localizan en la membrana plasmática. Su sobreexpresión muestra un fuerte fenotipo en fruto, en cambio los mutantes de pérdida de función no muestran fenotipo aparente, por lo que su función es desconocida.Primo Capella, MA. (2014). Los genes DEVIL y su papel en el desarrollo del fruto de Arabidopsis thaliana. http://hdl.handle.net/10251/53396Archivo delegad

Caracterización fisiológica y molecular de la respuesta de patrones de cítricos a estrés por baja temperatura

[ES] A escala mundial, la Citricultura es uno de los sectores dentro de la Fruticultura con mayor producción, superando los 158 millones de toneladas en el año, pero es sensible de un gran número de estreses abióticos al ser un cultivo subtropical. La baja temperatura es uno de los estreses abióticos que más afecta a los cítricos produciendo grandes pérdidas anuales. El cambio climático está muy presente dando lugar cambios en los patrones de El tiempo originando un gran número de olas de frío y calor. Pero gracias a la técnica del injerto y al uso de patrones de cítricos los problemas causados por los estreses abióticos pueden mejorarse. El IVIA cuenta con un programa de mejora de patrones cuyo objetivo es la búsqueda de nuevo material vegetal con el fin de satisfacer los problemas de la citricultura. Tradicionalmente, el patrón más tolerante a la baja temperatura es Poncirus trifoliata, el cual se han realizado la mayoría de los trabajos en la bibliografía. Como patrón sensible, se empleó Citrus macrophylla ya que se trata de un patrón del tipo limonero que se sabe popularmente de su sensibilidad al frío. También se empleó el patrón citrange Carrizo, el cual se trata de patrón comercial más cultivado en España en la actualidad y la variedad Taroco Rosso, que se sabe de su pigmentación a causa de la baja temperatura. Así pues, los capítulos planteados en la presente tesis fueron: 1. Estrés a baja temperatura a corto plazo, 2. Estrés a baja temperatura a largo plazo y 3. El efecto del patrón en la variedad Tarocco Rosso.[CAT] A escala mundial, la Citricultura és un dels sectors dins de la Fruticultura amb més producció, superant els 158 milions de tones a l'any, però és sensible d'un gran nombre d'estressos abiòtics per ser un cultiu subtropical. La baixa temperatura és un dels estressos abiòtics que més afecta els cítrics produint grans pèrdues anuals. El canvi climàtic està molt present donant lloc a canvis en els patrons de El temps originant un gran nombre d'onades de fred i calor. Però gràcies a la tècnica de l'empelt i a l'ús de patrons de cítrics, els problemes causats pels estressos abiòtics es poden millorar. L'IVIA compta amb un programa de millora de patrons que te com a objectiu la recerca de nou material vegetal per tal de satisfer els problemes de la citricultura. Tradicionalment, el patró més tolerant a la baixa temperatura és Poncirus trifoliata, el qual s'han realitzat la majoria dels treballs a la bibliografia. Com a patró sensible, es va fer servir Citrus macrophylla ja que es tracta d'un patró del tipus llimoner que se sap popularment de la seva sensibilitat al fred. També es va emprar el patró citrange Carrizo, el qual es tracta del patró comercial més cultivat a Espanya actualment i la varietat Taroco Rosso, que se sap de la seva pigmentació a causa de la baixa temperatura. Així doncs, els capítols plantejats en aquesta tesi van ser: 1. Estrès a baixa temperatura a curt termini, 2. Estrès a baixa temperatura a llarg termini i 3. L'efecte del patró en la varietat Tarocco Rosso.[EN] On a global scale, Citriculture is one of the sectors within Fruit Growing with the highest production, exceeding 158 million tons per year, but it is sensitive to many abiotic stresses as it is a subtropical crop. Low temperature is one of the abiotic stresses that most affects citrus, producing large annual losses. Climate change is very present, giving rise to changes in weather patterns, causing many cold and heat waves. But thanks to the grafting technique and the use of citrus rootstocks, problems caused by abiotic stresses can be improved. IVIA institute has a rootstock improvement program whose objective is to search for new plant material to satisfy the problems of Citriculture. Traditionally, the most low-temperature tolerant rootstock is Poncirus trifoliata, on which most of the work in the literature has been done. As a sensitive rootstock, Citrus macrophylla was used since it is a lemon type rootstock that is popularly known for its sensitivity to cold. The citrange Carrizo rootstock was also used, which is currently the most cultivated commercial rootstock in Spain, and the Taroco Rosso variety, which is known for its pigmentation due to low temperature. Thus, the chapters proposed in this thesis were: 1. Short-term low-temperature stress, 2. Long-term low-temperature stress, and 3. The rootstock effect on the Tarocco Rosso variety.Primo Capella, MA. (2023). Caracterización fisiológica y molecular de la respuesta de patrones de cítricos a estrés por baja temperatura [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/19289

Cold Stress in Citrus: A Molecular, Physiological and Biochemical Perspective

Due to climate change, we are forced to face new abiotic stress challenges like cold and heat waves that currently result from global warming. Losses due to frost and low temperatures force us to better understand the physiological, hormonal, and molecular mechanisms of response to such stress to face losses, especially in tropical and subtropical crops like citrus fruit, which are well adapted to certain weather conditions. Many of the responses to cold stress that are found are also conserved in citrus. Hence, this review also intends to show the latest work on citrus. In addition to basic research, there is a great need to employ and cultivate new citrus rootstocks to better adapt to environmental conditions

Gene Expression under Short-Term Low Temperatures: Preliminary Screening Method to Obtain Tolerant Citrus Rootstocks

Climate change and global warming are leading to a change in weather patterns toward hot and cold waves. Citrus fruits are a tropical or subtropical crop whose growth is altered by changes in weather patterns. Thus, in the present work, two experiments are evaluated to obtain a screening method to select citrus rootstocks that help us to select new low-temperature-tolerant plant materials. One cold experiment was carried out with the Poncirus trifoliata and Citrus macrophylla rootstocks at 4 °C for 4, 8, 24 and 56 h. A second experiment was performed at 4 °C for 5 days with subsequent acclimatization lasting 0, 5, 10 and 24 h. The expression of the cold response genes CAMTA1, CAMTA3, CAMTA5, CBF1, ICE1 and COR413 IM1 was quantified. The results showed that the best rootstock selection strategy was the second experiment, as a higher expression of the genes CAMTA3, CAMTA5, CBF1 and COR413 IM1 was seen in the tolerant genotype P. trifoliata. We quantified the gene expression of proline biosynthesis P5CS1, dOAT and the proline transporters PROT1 and PROT2; the concentration of the amino acid proline in leaves was also quantified. These results once again showed that the best experiment to differentiate between tolerant and sensitive rootstocks was the second experiment with acclimation time