The Reasons of Passing the Federal Reserve Act of 23 December 1913. The Formation of Central Bank of the USA

The Federal Reserve System, often called the Fed, is the central bank of the United States. The establishment of the Federal Reserve System in 1913 is conventionally viewed as the inevitable outcome of the turmoil surrounding the Panic of 1907. The Panic of 1907 was the last and most severe of the bank panics that plagued the pre-Civil War Era and the National Banking Era of the United States. Federal regulation was absent in the antebellum period with panics in 1819, 1837, and 1857. During the National Banking Era, banking panics occurred in 1873, 1884, 1890, 1893, and 1907. Bank panics were characterized by the widespread appearance of ban runs, attempts by depositors to simultaneously withdraw their deposits from the banking system. Because banks did not (and still do not) keep a 100% reserve against deposit, it paid to be near the front of the line of depositors demanding their money when a panic blew up. What sets the 1907 panic apart from earlier panics was that the crisis focused on the trust companies in New York City. The National Banking Era lasted from 1863 to 1914, when Congress, in part to eliminate these recurring panics, after considerable debate, created the Federal Reserve System. Another congressional objective was to provide an institution that could centralize the clearing of payments across the nation. Congress also desired the government to have a central depository for its funds. The Fed’s principal goal of economic stability has not changed since its creation in [email protected] w Białymstok

Exchange Rate Regimes and Poland's Participation in ERM II

In this paper we address some of the issues resulting from Poland's will to join the Economic and Monetary Union. Our attention focuses on topics related to the possibly soon entry into the European exchange rate mechanism (ERM II). We consider the possible paths of entering the system, providing a detailed analysis of the choice of fluctuation margins and the central parity. Further, we analyze the possible monetary policy strategies within the system. We describe the benefits and drawbacks of ERM II participation and consider the eventuality of parity revaluation. In this part estimates of the Balassa-Samuelson effect for Poland are provided.Transition economies, Poland, ERM II, Balassa-Samuelson effect, equilibrium exchange rate

Bliźnięta syjamskie – diagnoza prenatalna I trymestru ciąży. Analiza przypadku oraz przegląd literatury

Conjoined twins are a unique type of monozygotic twins. All monozygotic twins should be thoroughly evaluated for incomplete separation and, if incomplete separation is diagnosed, the extent of internal organ connection and the presence of additional developmental anomalies of the foetuses should be assessed. Common heart of foetuses is particularly difficult to diagnose and crucial for prognosis. We present an example of female thoracoomohalopagus twins with a common triventricular heart, connate livers, and joined hepatic vessels, diagnosed in week 12 of pregnancy. Due to the high complexity of foetal connection, separation was not possible and following interdisciplinary consultation, the pregnancy was aborted upon the patient’s request in week 16.Bliźnięta nierozdzielone stanowią unikalny typ bliźniąt monozygotycznych. Wszystkie bliźnięta monozygotyczne winny być wnikliwie ocenione w kontekście ich niecałkowitego rozdzielenia, a w sytuacji postawienia takiej diagnozy należy ustalić rozległość zespolenia narządów wewnętrznych oraz obecność dodatkowych anomalii rozwoju płodów. Szczególnie trudną diagnostycznie oraz kluczową w kategoriach rokowania jest sytuacja wystąpienia wspólnego serca płodów. Prezentujemy przypadek bliźniąt płci żeńskiej typu thoracoomphalopagus, ze wspólnym, trójkomorowym sercem, zrośniętymi wątrobami oraz połączonymi naczyniami wątrobowymi rozpoznany w 12 tygodniu ciąży. Z powodu wysokiego stopnia złożoności połączenia płodów operacja rozdzielnia bliźniąt nie była możliwa i po interdyscyplinarnej konsultacji ciąża została na prośbę pacjentki zakończona terminacją w 16 tygodniu

Złośliwy nowotwór osłonek nerwów obwodowych o umiejscowieniu w sterczu

The diagnostic and therapeutic approach to prostatic neurosarcoma, currently known as a malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor (MPNst) of the prostate, due to its rarity, is not well established. Our presenting case was a 73 year old patient, admitted to the Hospital with suspicion of a prostatic tumor. The patient underwent surgical resection of the described pathological mass. Gross appearance of the pathological examination revealed a yellow-gray colored tumor, 12 × 6 × 7 cm in size. On cross-section: tumor heterogeneity, fatty, yellow-gray, with no foci of necrosis, but with a few cysts of 1–3 cm in size, with a gelatinous substance. Microscopic examination — showed neurosarcoma of the prostate. The patient died at six months follow-up, due to cardiovascular insufficiency.Postępowanie diagnostyczne i terapeutyczne u pacjentów z nerwiakomięsakami prostaty (aktualnie klasyfikowanymi jako złośliwe nowotwory osłonek nerwów obwodowych) pozostaje nieokreślone z powodu rzadkiej na nie zapadalności. Przedstawiamy przypadek 73-letniego chorego, przyjętego do szpitala z powodu nowotworu stercza, który został poddany wycięciu zmiany. Makroskopowo stwierdzono żółto-szarawy guz o wymiarach 12 × 6 × 7 cm, na przekroju o niejednorodnej budowie z zawartością tkanki tłuszczowej, bez ognisk martwicy, ale z obecnością kilku torbieli o wymiarach 1–3 cm, wypełnionych treścią galaretowatą. Badanie mikroskopowe ujawniło cechy nerwiakomięsaka. Pacjent zmarł sześć miesięcy po operacji w następstwie niewydolności krążenia

Prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome in dizygotic twin pregnancy

We present a case of a 33-year-old pregnant woman who had a transvaginal ultrasound performed at week 9 of gestation. A dichorionic diamniotic twin pregnancy, with symmetrically developing fetuses, was confirmed. Chromosomal defect markers (NT, NB, DV, TV) were analyzed in the first genetic test, performed according to the Fetal Medicine Foundation (FMF) criteria, and the double marker test was performed (PAPP-A protein and free beta-hCG concentrations in patient serum were determined). In the subsequent diagnostic procedures, the patient was offered and consented to amniopuncture after week 15 of gestation. The material obtained in the course of that invasive procedure allowed to identify a normal male karyotype – 46, XY in the first fetus (Fetus I). Cytogenetic analysis of the material from the second fetus (Fetus II) resulted in the diagnosis of an abnormal female karyotype – 47, XX, +21. Based on the analyzed clinical case, we present the difficulties of performing prenatal diagnosis in a dizygotic twin pregnancy. The results prove the applicability and efficacy of prenatal diagnostics tests based on the FMF criteria also in twin pregnancies

Classification of Dermatological Asymmetry of the Skin Lesions using Pretrained Convolutional Neural Networks

International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing

Instability of 2,2-di(pyridin-2-yl)acetic acid. Tautomerization versus decarboxylation

The DFT calculations at the B3LYP level with 6-311G** basis set were carried out in order to reveal whether tautomerization or decarboxylation is responsible for the instability of 2,2-di(pyridin-2-yl)acetic (DPA) and 1,8-diazafluorene-9-carboxylic (DAF) acids. The carboxyl protons in both compounds are involved in the intramolecular hydrogen bonds (the pyridine nitrogen atoms are the hydrogen bond acceptors). Although formation of two intramolecular OH···N hydrogen bonds in the enols of both carboxylic acids enables effective electron delocalization within the quasi rings (···HO − C = C − C = N), only ene-1,1-diol of DAF has somewhat lower energy than DAF itself (ΔE is ca. 7 kcal mol-1). DPA and its enediol have comparable energies. Migration of the methine proton toward the carbonyl oxygen atom (to form enediols) requires overstepping the energy barriers of 55-57 kcal mol-1 for both DPA and DAF. The enaminone tautomers of the acids, formed by migration of this proton toward the pyridine nitrogen atom, are thermodynamically somewhat more stable than the respective enediols. The energy barriers of these processes are equal to ca. 44 and 62 kcal mol-1 for DPA and DAF, respectively. Thus, such tautomerization of the acids is not likely to proceed. On the other hand, the distinct energetic effects (ca. 15 kcal mol-1) favor decarboxylation. This process involves formation of (E)-2-(pyridin-2(1H)-ylidenemethyl)pyridine and its cyclic analogue followed by their tautomerization to (dipyridin-2-yl)methane and 1,8-diazafluorene, respectively. Although the later compound was found to be somewhat thermodynamically more stable, kinetic control of tautomerization of the former is more distinct

The chorionic bump associated with acrania – case report

The chorionic bump is a rare abnormality of the gestational sac, presenting as a convex bulge from the choriodecidual surface into the sac, correlated with poor prognosis for the pregnancy. We report a case of a 36-year-old pregnant woman, with a history of spontaneous abortion, who presented for an early scan at 6 weeks and 4 days of gestation. The pregnancy was spontaneous and unplanned. The patient conceived in less than 3 months after discontinuing oral contraceptives. No folic acid was taken before or in the pregnancy. An ultrasound scan revealed a chorionic bump with a hypoechoic center and echogenic border, measuring 18.3 x 14.7 x 21.9 mm. No motion within the chorionic bump was detected upon color and power Doppler examination. The second scan was performed a week later, at 7+4 wks. The chorionic bump had not changed in terms of size and sonographic appearance. An acranial fetus of CRL 45.5 mm was diagnosed at 11+2 wks. The concentration of free β-hCG was 17.2 IU/L, corresponding to 0.37 MoM and PAPP-A levels were 1.31 IU/L, corresponding to 0.82 MoM. After counseling the patient opted for termination of pregnancy. Very few cases of chorionic bumps have been described so far and, to the best of our knowledge, its coexistence with neural tube defects has been reported for the first time. We postulate a possibility of an underlying pathological mechanism for such coexistence. The chorionic bump is a focal convex bulge with irregular borders, protruding from the choriodecidual surface into the gestational sac and with different degrees of echogenicity, usually a hypoechoic middle and echogenic border. The chorionic bump might represent the following: a hematoma, an area of hemorrhage, a non-embryonic gestation, or a demise of an embryo in a twin pregnancy. The presence of the bump is associated with a four-fold increase in the spontaneous abortion rate as compared with the general population. Decreased folate levels increase the incidence of neural tube defects. Oxidative stress resulting from folic acid deficiency may be responsible for neural tube defects through impairment of factors inhibiting apoptosis in the neuroepithelium. Fetuses with neural tube defects are at an increased risk of being aborted spontaneously. Furthermore, women who deliver children with neural tube defects frequently have a history of miscarriage. Our patient did not take any folic acid and also had a history of spontaneous miscarriage. In the case we herein presented, the coexistence of acrania and placental pathology could be attributed to folate deficiency. Such coexistence is described for the first time and could be accidental, but there is possible theoretical association between these two pathologies